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THE  INTERNATIONAL  SCIENTIFIC  SERIES 
VOLUME  LIX 


THE 

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THE  INTERNATIONAL  SCIENTIFIC  SERIES 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM 


BY 

ALFRED    BINET 

AND 

CHARLES    Ftnt 

ASSISTANT  PHYSICIAN  AT  THE  SALPiTRI^RE 


NEW   YORK 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 

1889 


Jiv.  Library,  UC  Santa  Cruz  2003 


BF 


PEEFACE 


We  think  it  well  to  state  that  this  work  was  written  in 
the  environment  of  the  Salpetriere.  By  this  we  not  only 
mean  that  our  descriptions  apply  to  facts  observed  in 
that  hospital,  but  also  that  our  personal  observations 
were  made  in  accordance  with  the  method  inaugurated 
by  M.  Charcot,  the  chief  of  the  school  of  the  Salpetriere, 
that  is,  in  accordance  with  the  experimental  method 
which  is  illustrated  by  clinical  science.  While  relying 
on  the  observation  of  spontaneous  facts,  we  have 
strengthened  these  facts  by  experiments. 

It  would  at  present  be  premature  to  write  a  didactic 
treatise  on  animal  magnetism  and  hypnotism.  This  work 
only  aims  at  giving  an  account  of  special  researches 
which,  notwithstanding  their  number  and  variety,  will 
not  justify  general  conclusions  on  the  question.  After 
receiving  this  warning,  the  reader  will  not  be  surprised 


VI  PREFACE. 

to  meet  with  occasional  breaches  of  continuity,  which 
are,  however,  more  apparent  than  real,  and  which  are 
due  to  our  resolution  not  to  speak  of  experiments  which 
we  have  not  verified  for  ourselves.  Completeness  is  good, 
but  it  is  still  better  to  assert  nothing  of  which  we  are 
not  assured, 

B.   AND  F. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTEK  FAGB 

I.    Animal    Magxetism    in    its    BKorNNiNGS— Mesmer    and 

PUYSEGUR...                 ...                 ...                 ...                 ...                 ...  1 

II.    History  op  Animal  Magnetism— the  Academic  Period  33 

III.  HiSTOKY    OP  Animal  Magnetism. — Braid:    Hypnotism — 

Grimes,   Azam,    Durand    de   Gros,    Demarquay,    and 
Giracd-Teulon,  Liebault,  Ch.  Kichet,  Charcot,  and 

P.  Richer                ...            ...            ...            ...            ...  67 

IV.  The  Modes  of  producing  Hypnosis             ...            ...  88 

V.    Symptoms  of  Hypnosis            ...            ...           ...           ...  104 

VI.    The  Hypnotic  States     ...            ...            ...            ...  154 

VII.    Imperfect  Forms  of  Hypnosis              ...            ...            ...  164 

VIII.    General  Stidy  of  Suggestion     ...            ...            ...  171 

IX.    Hallucinations         ...            ...            ...            ...            ...  211 

X.    Suggestions  of  Movements  and  op  Acts  ...            ...  277 

XL    Paralysis  by  Suggestion:  Anaesthesia            ...            ...  304 

XIL    Paralysis  by  Suggestion:    Motor  Paralysis          ...  323 

XIII.  The   Application   of   Hypnotism  to  Therapeutics  and 

Education             ...           ...           ...           ...           ...  352 

XIV.  Hypnotism  and  Responsibility     ...           ,,.           ...  361 


ANIMAL    MAGNETISM 


CHAPTER  I. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS — MESMER  AND 
PUYSEGUR. 

We  propose  to  discuss  a  question  as  old  as  the  world 
itself;  which  about  a  century  ago  was  admitted  into  the 
sphere  of  scientific  discussion;  which,  although  con- 
stantly rejected  and  disclaimed  by  learned  bodies,  has 
always  reappeared,  and  is  still  in  process  of  evolution, 
notwithstanding  the  importance  of  the  results  already 
achieved.  In  retracing  the  history  of  animal  magnetism 
we  shall  endeavour  to  explain  the  causes  of  these  vicissi- 
tudes of  fortune,  and  to  indicate  what  instruction  may 
be  derived  from  them.  As  we  proceed  with  our  subject, 
the  truth  will  become  more  evident  that  it  was  owing 
to  a  lack  of  method  that  animal  magnetism  was  not 
admitted  at  an  earlier  date  to  take  its  place  in  science. 

It  concerns  scholars  to  trace  the  course  of  animal 
magnetism  through  the  ages,  and  to  seek  for  its  remote 
beginnings  in  the  customs  of  ancient  peoples.  We  refrain 
from  such  historic  studies,  for  which  we  are  incompetent, 
and  propose  merely  to  sum  up  the  conclusions  of  science 


2  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

witli  respect  to  animal  magnetism,  and  consequently  only 
to  speak  of  its  history  so  far  as  this  history  has  left  its 
traces  on  the  present  state  of  the  question.*  From 
this  point  of  view,  it  is  unnecessary  to  go  back  to  an 
earlier  period  than  that  of  Mesmer  and  of  his  immediate 
predecessors. 

Mesmerism  is  connected  with  a  tradition  which  had 
its  origin  towards  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
a  tradition  which,  as  the  name  of  animal  magnetism 
implies,  not  invented  by  Mesmer,  ascribed  to  man  the 
power  of  exercising  on  his  fellows  an  action  analogous 
to  that  of  the  magnet.  It  seems  to  be  established  that 
a  profound  impression  had  been  produced  upon  the 
human  mind  by  the  natural  magnet  and  its  physical  pro- 
perties, the  existence  of  two  poles,  endowed  with  opposite 
properties,  and  a  remote  action  without  direct  contact. 
Even  in  ancient  times  it  had  been  observed,  or  assumed, 
that  the  magnet  possessed  a  curative  power,  and  it  had 
been  employed  as  a  remedy.  This  belief  still  subsisted  in 
the  middle  ages.t  In  a  work  by  Cardan,  dated  1584,f  there 
is  an  account  of  an  experiment  in  anaesthesia,  produced 
by  the  magnet.  It  was  then  customary  to  magnetize  rings 
which  were  worn  round  the  neck  or  on  the  arm,  in  order 
to  cure  nervous  diseases.  The  idea  gradually  dawned 
that  there  are  magnetic  properties  in  the  human  body. 
The  first  trace  of  this  belief  appears  in  the  works  of 
Paracelsus.     This  remarkable  thinker  maintained  that 

*  Many  authors  have  written  the  history  of  animal  magnetism  :  Dubois, 
Dechambre,  Bersot,  Fij^uier,  etc.  The  only  study  of  the  subject  entitled 
to  be  called  critical  is  that  of  Paul  Richer,  in  the  Nouvelle  Eevue, 
August  1, 1882. 

t  Richet,  Bulletin  de  la  Soeiete  de  Biologic,  May  30,  1884. 

X  Cardan's  Works,  book  vii.,  on  Precious  Stones. 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  3 

the  human  body  was  endowed  with  a  double  magnetism; 
that  one  portion  attracted  to  itself  the  planets,  and  was 
nourished  by  them,  whence  came  wisdom,  thought,  and 
the  senses ;  that  the  other  portion  attracted  to  itself  the 
elements  and  disintegrated  them,  whence  came  flesh  and 
blood;  that  the  attractive  and  hidden  virtue  of  man 
resembles  that  of  amber  and  of  the  magnet ;  that  by  this 
virtue  the  magnetic  virtue  of  healthy  persons  a^/tracts  the 
enfeebled  magnetism  of  those  who  are  sick.*  After  Para- 
celsus, many  learned  men  of  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries — Glocenius,  Burgrave,  Helinotius,  Robert 
Fludd,  Kircher,  and  Maxwell — believed  that  in  the 
magnet  they  could  recognize  the  properties  of  that 
universal  principle  by  which  minds  addicted  to  generali- 
sation thought  that  all  natural  phenomena  might  be 
explained.  These  men  wrote  voluminous  books,  filled 
with  sterile  discussions,  with  unproved  assertions,  and 
with  contemptible  arguments. 

Mesmer  drew  largely  from  these  sources ;  it  cannot  be 
disputed  that  he  had  read  some  of  these  many  books, 
devoted  by  early  authors  to  the  study  of  magnetism, 
although  such  study  was  forbidden.  Where  he  showed 
his  originality  was  in  taking  hold  of  the  so-called  uni- 
versal principle  of  the  world,  and  in  applying  it  to  the 
sick  by  means  of  contact  and  of  passes.  His  predecessors 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  addicted  to  such  practices ; 
they  believed  that  in  order  to  infuse  the  vital  spirit,  it 
was  enough  to  make  use  of  talismans  and  of  magic  boxes. 

Anthony  Mesmer  was  born  in  Germany,  in  1734.  He 
was  received  as  doctor  of  medicine  by  the  Faculty  in 

•  See  Sprengel,  Histoire  de  la  Medecine,  vol.  iii.  pp.  230  et  seq. ;  and 
Figuier,  Histoire  du  Merveilleux,  vol.  iii.  chap.  v. 


II  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

Vienna,  and  took  for  the  subject  of  his  thesis,  The 
Influence  of  the  Planets  in  the  Cure  of  Diseases  (1766). 
He  unaei  took  to  prove  that  the  sun,  moon,  and  heavenly 
bodies  act  upon  living  beings  by  means  of  a  subtle  fluid, 
which  he  called  animal  magnetism,  in  order  to  point  out 
the  properties  which  it  has  in  common  with  the  magnet. 
After  the  publication  of  this  whimsical  and  mystical 
work,  Mesmer  made  acquaintance  with  the  Jesuit  Father 
HeU,  professor  of  astronomy,  who  in  1774  settled  in 
Vienna,  and  cured  the  sick  by  means  of  magnetic  steel 
tractors.  Mesmer  discovered  some  analogy  between 
Hell's  experiments  and  his  own  astronomical  theories, 
and  tried  what  effect  the  magnet  would  produce  in  the 
treatment  of  diseases. 

An  account  of  his  cures  filled  the  Vienna  newspapers. 
Several  people  of  importance  gave  evidence  that  they 
had  been  cured,  among  whom  was  Osterwald,  director  of 
the  Munich  Academy  of  Science,  who  had  been  affected 
by  paralysis;  and  Bauer,  a  professor  of  mathematics, 
who  had  suffered  from  an  obstinate  attack  of  ophthalmia. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  learned  bodies  of  his  native 
country  did  not  accept  his  experiments,  and  the  letters 
which  he  wrote  to  most  of  the  academies  of  Europe 
remained  unanswered.  He  soon  abandoned  the  use  of 
the  magnet  and  of  Hell's  instruments,  and  restricted 
himself  to  passes  with  the  hand,  declaring  animal  mag- 
netism to  be  distinct  from  the  magnet. 

Obliged  to  quit  Vienna,  in  consequence  of  some  ad- 
venture not  clearly  explained,  Mesmer  came  to  Paris. 
He  first  established  himself  in  a  humble  quarter  of  the 
town,  Place  Vendome,  and  began  to  expound  his  theory 
of  the  magnetic  fluid.     In  1779  he  published  a  paper 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  9 

direction,  with  tlieir  necks  towards  the  circumference. 
All  these  objects  were  immersed  in  water,  but  this 
condition  was  not  absolutely  necessary,  and  the  haquet 
might  be  dry.  The  lid  was  pierced  with  a  certain 
number  of  holes,  whence  there  issued  jointed  and  mov- 
able iron  branches,  which  were  to  be  held  by  the  patients. 
Absolute  silence  was  maintained.  The  patients  were 
ranged  in  several  rows  round  the  haquet,  connected  with 
each  other  by  cords  passed  round  their  bodies,  and  by  a 
second  chain,  formed  by  joining  hands.  As  they  waited 
a  melodious  air  was  heard,  proceeding  from  a  pianoforte, 
or  harmonicon,  placed  in  the  adjoining  room,  and  to 
this  the  human  voice  was  sometimes  added.  Then, 
influenced  by  the  magnetic  effluvia  issuing  from  the 
haquet,  curious  phenomena  were  produced.  These  are 
well  described  by  an  eye-witness  named  Bailly : 

"  Some  patients  remain  calm,  and  experience  nothing : 
others  cough,  spit,  feel  slight  pain,  a  local  or  general  heat, 
and  fall  into  sweats ;  others  are  agitated  and  tormented 
by  convulsions.  These  convulsions  are  remarkable  for 
their  number,  duration,  and  force,  and  have  been  known 
to  persist  for  more  than  three  hours.  They  are  charac- 
terized by  involuntary,  jerking  movements  in  all  the  limbs, 
and  in  the  whole  body,  by  contraction  of  the  throat,  by 
twitchings  in  the  hypochondriac  and  epigastric  regions, 
by  dimness  and  rolling  of  the  eyes,  by  piercing  cries, 
tears,  hiccough,  and  immoderate  laughter.  They  are 
preceded  or  followed  by  a  state  of  languor  or  dreaminess, 
by  a  species  of  depression,  and  even  by  stupor. 

"  The  slightest  sudden  noise  causes  the  patient  to 
start,  and  it  has  been  observed  that  he  is  affected- by  a 
change  of  time  or  tune  in  the  airs  performed  on  the 


10  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

pianoforte;  that  his  agitation  is  increased  by  a  more 
lively  movement,  and  that  his  convulsions  then  become 
more  violent.  Patients  are  seen  to  be  absorbed  in  the 
search  for  one  another,  rushing  together,  smiling,  talking 
affectionately,  and  endeavouring  to  modify  their  crises. 
They  are  all  so  submissive  to  the  magnetizer  that  even 
when  they  appear  to  be  in  a  stupor,  his  voice,  a  glance, 
or  sign  will  rouse  them  from  it.  It  is  impossible  not  to 
admit,  from  all  these  results,  that  some  great  force  acts 
upon  and  masters  the  patients,  and  that  this  force  appears 
to  reside  in  the  magnetizer.  This  convulsive  state  is 
termed  the  crisis.  It  has  been  observed  that  many 
women  and  few  men  are  subject  to  such  crises;  that 
they  are  only  established  after  the  lapse  of  two  or  three 
hours,  and  that  when  one  is  established,  others  soon  and 
successively  begin. 

"When  the  agitation  exceeds  certain  limits,  the 
patients  are  transported  into  a  padded  room  ;  the 
women's  corsets  are  unlaced,  and  they  may  then  strike 
their  heads  against  the  padded  walls  without  doing 
themselves  any  injury." 

Mesmer,  wearing  a  coat  of  lilac  silk,  walked  up  and 
down  amid  this  palpitating  crowd,  together  with  Deslon 
and  his  associates,  whom  he  chose  for  their  youth  and 
comeliness.  Mesmer  carried  a  long  iron  wand,  with 
which  he  touched  the  bodies  of  the  patients,  and  especi- 
ally those  parts  which  were  diseased ;  often,  laying  aside 
the  wand,  he  magnetized  them  with  his  eyes,  fixing  his 
gaze  on  theirs,  or  applying  his  hands  to  the  hypochondriac 
region  and  to  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen.  This  appli- 
cation was  often  continued  for  hours,  and  at  other  times 
the  master   made  use  of  passes.     He  began  by  placing 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  11 

himself  en  rapport  with  his  subject.  Seated  opposite 
to  him,  foot  against  foot,  knee  against  knee,  he  laid  his 
fingers  on  the  hypochondriac  region,  and  moved  them  to 
and  fro,  lightly  touching  the  ribs.  Magnetization  with 
strong  currents  was  substituted  for  these  manipulations 
when  more  energetic  results  were  to  be  produced.  "  The 
master,  erecting  his  fingers  in  a  pyramid,  passed  his 
hands  all  over  the  patient's  body,  beginning  with  the 
head,  and  going  down  over  the  shoulders  to  the  feet. 
He  then  returned  again,  to  the  head,  both  back  and 
front,  to  the  belly  and  the  back;  he  renewed  the  pro- 
cess again  and  again,  until  the  magnetized  person  was 
saturated  with  the  healing  fluid,  and  was  transported 
with  pain  or  pleasure,  both  sensations  being  equally 
salutary."  *  Young  women  were  so  much  gratified  by 
the  crisis,  that  they  begged  to  be  thrown  into  it  anew  ; 
they  followed  Mesmer  through  the  hall,  and  confessed 
that  it  was  impossible  not  to  be  warmly  attached  to 
the  magnetizer's  person. 

It  must  have  been  curious  to  witness  such  scenes. 
So  far  as  we  are  now  able  to  judge,  Mesmer  excited  in 
his  patients  nervous  crises  in  which  we  may  trace  the 
principal  signs  of  the  severe  hysteric  attacks  which  may 
be  observed  daily.-[-  Silence,  darkness,  and  the  emotional 
expectation  of  some  extraordinary  phenomenon,  when 
several  persons  are  collected  in  one  place,  are  conditions 
known  to  encourage  convulsive  crises  in  predisposed 
subjects.  It  must  be  remembered  that  women  were  in 
the  majority,  that  the  first  crisis  which  occurred  was 

*  Louis  Figuier,  Histoire  du  Merveilleux,  vol.  ii.  p.  20,     Paris,  1860. 
t  See  Bourreville  and  Eegnard,  Iconograpliie  photographique   de  la 
Salpetriere  ;   Paul  Richor,  Etudes  climques  sur  V Hystero-epilepsia. 


12  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

contagious,  and  we  shall  fully  understand  the  hysterical 
character  of  these  manifestations. 

We  must  again  draw  attention  to  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  these  convulsive  crises.  The  movements 
of  all  the  limbs  and  of  the  whole  body,  the  contraction 
of  the  throat,  the  twitchings  of  the  hypochondriac  and  of 
the  epigastric  regions,  are  manifest  signs  of  hysteria,  and 
may  be  referred  to  the  nervous  antecedents  of  the  elegant 
and  frivolous  crowd  which  was  the  subject  of  Mesmer's 
experiments.  There  is,  however,  still  considerable  un- 
certainty as  to  the  nature  of  many  of  the  phenomena 
which  took  place  round  the  haquet. 

The  desire  to  submit  to  Mesmer's  treatment  soon 
became  more  general.  The  house  in  Place  Vendome 
became  too  small,  and  Mesmer  purchased  the  Hotel 
Bullion,  in  which  he  established  four  haquets,  one  of  them 
for  the  gratuitous  use  of  the  poor.  Since  the  latter  did 
not  suffice,  Mesmer  undertook  to  magnetize  a  tree  at 
the  end  of  Rue  Bondy,  and  thousands  of  sick  people 
might  be  seen  attaching  themselves  to  it  with  cords,  in 
hopes  of  a  cure. 

But  this  rage  for  Mesmer's  treatment  could  not  last 
long,  and  difficulties  of  all  kinds  assailed  him.  On  his 
arrival  in  Paris,  he  had  requested  the  Academy  of 
Science,  and  subsequently  the  Royal  Society  of  Medicine, 
to  institute  an  inquiry  into  his  experiments ;  they  were 
unable  to  agree  as  to  the  conditions  of  this  inquiry, 
and  the  meeting  dissolved  in  anger.  Deslon,  a  professor 
of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine,  asked  his  colleagues  to  sum- 
mon a  general  meeting  to  examine  his  observations  and 
Mesmer's  propositions.  This  meeting,  incited  by  M. 
de  Vauzesmes,  was  extremely  hostile  to  him.     He  was 

V 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  13 

condemned  without  any  examination  of  the  facts,  and, 
moreover,  was  threatened  with  the  penalty  of  having 
his  name  removed  from  the  list  of  licensed  physicians 
unless  he  amended  his  ways.  In  consequence  of  this, 
Mesmer  left  France,  although  the  government  offered  him 
a  life-pension  of  20,000  francs  if  he  would  remain. 

Mesmer  s  absence  was  short.  He  was  soon  recalled 
by  his  disciples,  who  were  aware  of  their  master's 
avarice,  and  opened  a  subscription  of  10,000  louis,  in 
order  to  induce  him  to  give  a  course  of  lectures  in  which 
he  was  to  reveal  his  discoveries.  This  course  was,  how- 
ever, the  point  of  departure  for  dissensions  between  the 
master  and  his  disciples.  Since  the  latter  had  bought 
his  secret,  they  thought  themselves  entitled  to  publish 
it  in  lectures  to  the  public.  Mesmer  claimed  the  monopoly 
of  his  discovery.  Moreover,  in  spite  of  his  promises, 
he  had  never  made  a  complete  explanation,  doubtless 
because  he  had  nothing  to  tell.  He  had  nothing  definite 
to  add  to  the  twenty-seven  propositions  published  in 
1779.  Several  of  Mesmer 's  disciples,  who  had  paid  a 
high  price  for  his  secret,  accused  him  of  having  enunciated 
a  theory  which  was  merely  a  collection  of  obscure 
principles,  and  in  fact  they  were  justified  in  this  asser- 
tion. One  of  Deslon's  hearers  said :  "  Those  who  know 
the  secret  are  more  doubtful  than  those  who  are  ignorant 
of  it."  It  was  a  period  of  disputes,  dissensions,  epigrams, 
invectives,  vaudevilles,  and  songs. 

Finally  the  government  intervened,  and  in  1784  a 
commission  was  nominated  to  inquire  into  magnetism. 
This  commission  consisted  of  members  taken  from  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine,  and  from  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
BaiUy,  the  celebrated  astronomer,  was  chosen  as  its 
2 


14  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

reporter,  and  it  included  other  illustrious  men,  such  as 
Franklin  and  Lavoisier.  Another  commission,  composed 
of  members  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Medicine,  was 
charged  to  make  a  distinct  report  on  the  same  subject; 
Laurent  de  Jussieu  was  included  in  this  second  com- 
mission. 

We  find  it  interesting  at  the  present  day  to  read 
the  reports  of  these  commissions,  since  they  contain  a 
disquisition  on  an  obscure  matter,  of  which  time  has 
revealed  part  of  the  secret.  The  line  of  conduct  pursued 
by  the  commissioners  in  their  inquiry  was  irreproach- 
able. The  question  concerned  the  existence  of  a  mag- 
netic fluid  of  the  nature  which  Mesmer  and  Deslon 
claimed  to  have  discovered.  Deslon  proposed  to  prove 
the  existence  of  the  fluid  by  the  observation  of  the  cures 
which  he  effected.  But  the  commissioners  rightly  con- 
sidered that  this  method  was  too  doubtful;  they  decided 
to  observe  in  the  first  instance  "  the  instantaneous  effects 
of  the  fluid  on  the  animal  body,  while  depriving  these 
effects  of  all  the  illusions  which  might  be  allied  with 
them,  and  ascertaining  that  they  could  be  due  to  no 
other  cause  than  animal  magnetism." 

The  immediate  effects  of  magnetism,  as  they  occurred 
at  this  period,  were  crises,  and  these  were  the  special 
object  of  research.  Some  really  magnetic  effects  might 
be  combined  with  them,  but  Mesmer  and  his  disciples 
only  ascribed  curative  virtue  to  the  manifestation  of 
these  convulsive  movements.  Deslon  asserted  that  it  was 
only  by  means  of  these  crises,  which  were  produced  and 
directed  by  the  will  of  the  magnetizer,  that  he  was  able 
to  assist  or  excite  the  efforts  of  nature,  and  thus  effect 
a  cure.     We  are  now  aware  that  these  crises  are  real 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  15 

phenomena,  of  which  the  cause  is  generally  admitted 
to  be  hysterical  neurosis.  Moreover,  a  considerable  number 
of  facts  demonstrate  that,  under  the  influence  of  such 
crises,  certain  forms  of  paralysis,  which  have  persisted 
for  months,  and  even  for  years,  may  suddenly  disappear. 
There  was,  therefore,  a  certain  truth  in  the  curative 
virtue  of  these  convulsive  phenonema. 

The  commissioners  placed  themselves  under  treatment 
once  a  week,  and  experienced  nothing,  except  from  time 
to  time,  after  the  seance  had  been  protracted  for  several 
hours,  a  slight  nervous  irritability  or  pain  in  the  hollow 
of  the  abdomen,  to  which  Deslon  applied  his  hand.  We 
can  understand  this  negative  experience  since  we  are 
aware  that  such  crises,  as  well  as  magnetism,  can  only  be 
produced  in  a  favourable  soil.  In  the  case  of  susceptible 
subjects,  the  commissioners  observed  an  extreme  difference 
between  those  who  were  treated  in  public  and  in  private, 
and  this  can  be  still  more  readily  explained  by  the  well- 
known  contagious  effect  of  example  in  all  hysterical 
manifestations.  The  commissioners  were  particularly 
struck  with  the  fact  that  the  crises  did  not  occur  unless 
the  subjects  were  aware  that  they  were  being  magnetized. 
For  instance,  in  the  experiments  performed  by  Jumelin, 
they  observed  the  following  fact.  A  woman  who  appeared 
to  be  a  very  sensitive  subject,  was  sensible  of  heat  as 
soon  as  Jumelin's  hand  approached  her  body.  Her  eyes 
were  bandaged,  she  was  informed  that  she  was  being 
magnetized,  and  she  experienced  the  same  sensation,  but 
when  she  was  magnetized  without  being  informed  of  it, 
she  experienced  nothing.  Several  other  patients  were 
likewise  strongly  affected  when  no  operation  was  taking- 
place,  and  experienced  nothing  when  the  operation  was 


16  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

going  on.  But  the  most  curious  experience  of  this  kind 
was  made  in  Deslon's  presence,  much  to  his  confusion. 
According  to  the  theory,  when  a  tree  was  magnetized, 
every  person  who  approached  it  was  affected  by  its 
influence.  The  experiment  was  made  at  Passy  when 
Franklin  was  present.  Deslon  magnetized  one  tree  in  an 
orchard,  and  a  boy  of  twelve  years  old,  very  sensitive 
to  magnetism,  was  brought  towards  it  with  his  eyes 
bandaged.  At  the  first,  second,  and  third  tree,  he  turned 
giddy ;  at  the  fourth,  when  he  was  still  at  a  distance  of 
twenty-four  feet  from  the  magnetized  tree,  the  crisis 
occurred,  his  limbs  became  rigid,  and  it  was  necessary  to 
carry  him  to  an  adjoining  grass-plat  before  Deslon  could 
recall  him  to  consciousness.  All  that  these  experiments 
show  is  that  the  preconceived  idea  may  produce  the  same 
magnetic  effects  as  purely  physical  means.  This  truth 
is  well  known  to  the  performers  of  experiments.  It  is 
now  an  established  fact  that  a  subject  may  be  thrown 
into  a  magnetic  sleep,  simply  by  assuring  him  that  this 
will  occur,  and  by  the  same  process  he  may  even  be 
magnetized  from  a  distance,  if  it  is  asserted  that  he  will 
fall  into  somnambulism  on  a  given  day  and  hour,  in  any 
place  which  has  been  selected. 

The  commissioners,  ignorant  of  all  these  phenomena, 
which  are  now  thoroughly  established,  thought  that  all 
which  they  had  observed  might  be  explained  by  three 
chief  causes — imitation,  imagination,  and  contact.  This 
is  the  conclusion  of  their  report : — 

"  The  commissioners  have  ascertained  that  the  animal 
magnetic  jfluid  is  not  perceptible  by  any  of  the  senses ; 
that  it  has  no  action,  either  on  themselves  or  on  the 
patients    subjected    to    it.      They    are    convinced    that 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  17 

pressure  and  contact  effect  changes  which  are  rarely 
favourable  to  the  animal  system,  and  which  injuriously 
affect  the  imagination.  Finally,  they  have  demonstrated 
by  decisive  experiments  that  imagination  apart  from 
magnetism,  produces  convulsions,  and  that  magnetism 
without  imagination  produces  nothing.  They  have  come 
to  the  unanimous  conclusion  with  respect  to  the  existence 
and  utility  of  magnetism,  that  there  is  nothing  to  prove 
the  existence  of  the  animal  magnetic  fluid;  that  this 
fluid,  since  it  is  non-existent,  has  no  beneficial  effect ;  that 
the  violent  effects  observed  in  patients  under  public 
treatment  are  due  to  contact,  to  the  excitement  of  the 
imagination,  and  to  the  mechanical  imitation  which 
involuntarily  impels  us  to  repeat  that  which  strikes  our 
senses.  At  the  same  time,  they  are  compelled  to  add, 
since  it  is  an  important  observation,  that  the  contact 
and  repeated  excitement  of  the  imagination  which 
produce  the  crises  may  become  hurtful ;  that  the 
spectacle  of  these  crises  is  likewise  dangerous,  on  ac- 
count of  the  imitative  faculty  which  is  a  law  of  nature ; 
and  consequently  that  all  treatment  in  public  in  which 
magnetism  is  employed  must  in  the  end  be  productive 
of  evil  results. 

"  (Signed)     B.  Feanklin,  Majault,  Le  Roy,  Sallin, 

Bailly,  D'Arcet,  De  Bory,  Guillotin, 

Lavoisier. 

"Paris,  August  n,  1784." 

The  commissioners  therefore  merely  regarded  mag- 
netism as  an  effect  of  the  imagination.  Deslon  appears 
to  have  come  to  the  same  conclusion,  since  he  says,  not 
unreasonably,  "  If  the  medicine  of  the  imagination  is  the 
most  efficient,  why  should  we  not  make  use  of  it  ? "     In 


18  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

our  day  this  would  appear  to  be  an  insufficient  explana- 
tion. We  might  as  well  say  that  hysteria  is  due  to  the 
imagination. 

At  the  same  time,  the  commissioners  presented  a 
secret  report  which  expressed  their  final  estimate  of 
magnetism.  It  is  the  object  of  this  curious  document 
to  point  out  the  dangers  of  magnetism  with  respect  to 
morality.     We  think  it  well  to  reproduce  it  in  extenso. 

"  The  commissioners  entrusted  by  the  king  with  the 
examination  of  animal  magnetism  have  drawn  up  a 
report  to  be  presented  to  his  Majest}'  which  ought 
perhaps  to  be  published.  It  seemed  prudent  to  suppress 
an  observation  not  adapted  for  general  publication,  but 
they  did  not  conceal  it  from  the  king's  minister.  This 
minister  has  charged  them  to  draw  up  a  note  designed 
only  for  the  eyes  of  the  king. 

"  This  important  observation  concerns  morality.  The 
commissioners  have  ascertained  that  the  chief  causes  of 
the  effects  ascribed  to  animal  magnetism  are  contact, 
imagination,  and  imitation.  They  have  observed  that 
the  crisis  occurs  more  frequently  in  women  than  in 
men.  The  first  cause  of  this  fact  consists  in  the  differ- 
ent organizations  of  the  two  sexes.  Women  have,  as 
a  rule,  more  mobile  nerves;  their  imagination  is  more 
lively  and  more  easily  excited ;  it  is  readily  impressed 
and  aroused.  This  great  mobility  of  the  nerves,  since 
it  gives  a  more  exquisite  delicacy  to  the  senses,  renders 
them  more  susceptible  to  the  impressions  of  touch.  In 
touching  any  given  part,  it  may  be  said  that  they  are 
touched  all  over  the  body,  and  the  mobility  of  their 
nerves  also  inclines  them  more  readily  to  imitation.  It 
has  been  observed  that  women  are  like  musical  strings 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  19 

stretched  in  perfect  unison ;  when  one  is  moved,  all  the 
others  are  instantly  affected.  Thus  the  commissioners 
have  repeatedly  observed  that  when  the  crisis  occurs  in 
one  woman,  it  occurs  almost  at  once  in  others  also. 

"  This  organization  explains  why  the  crises  in  women 
are  more  frequent,  more  violent,  and  of  longer  duration 
than  in  men ;  it  is  nearly  always  due  to  their  sensitive 
nerves.  Some  crises  are  due  to  a  hidden,  but  natural 
cause,  to  an  emotional  cause  to  which  women  are  more 
or  less  susceptible,  and  which,  by  a  remote  influence, 
accumulates  these  emotions  and  raises  them  to  their 
highest  pitch,  thus  producing  a  convulsive  state  which 
may  be  confounded  with  the  ordinary  crises.  This  is  due 
to  the  empire  which  nature  has  caused  one  sex  to  exert 
over  the  other,  so  as  to  arouse  feelings  of  attachment  and 
emotion.  Women  are  always  magnetized  by  men ;  the 
established  relations  are  doubtless  those  of  a  patient  to 
the  physician,  but  this  physician  is  a  man,  and  whatever 
the  illness  may  be,  it  does  not  deprive  us  of  our  sex,  it 
does  not  entirely  withdraw  us  from  the  power  of  the 
other  sex;  illness  may  weaken  impressions  without 
destroying  them.  Moreover,  most  of  the  women  who 
present  themselves  to  be  magnetized  are  not  really  ill ; 
many  come  out  of  idleness,  or  for  amusement ;  others,  if 
not  perfectly  well,  retain  their  freshness  and  their  force, 
their  senses  are  unimpaired  and  they  have  all  the 
sensitiveness  of  youth ;  their  charms  are  such  as  to 
affect  the  physician,  and  their  health  is  such  as  to  make 
them  liable  to  be  affected  by  him,  so  that  the  danger  is 
reciprocal.  The  long-continued  proximity,  the  necessary 
contact,  the  communication  of  individual  heat,  the  inter- 
change of  looks,  are  ways  and  means  by  which  it  is  well 


20  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

known  that  nature  ever  effects  the  communication  of  the 
sensations  and  the  affections. 

"  The  magnetizer  generally  keeps  the  patient's  knees 
enclosed  within  his  own,  and  consequently  the  knees  and 
all  the  lower  parts  of  the  body  are  in  close  contact.  The 
hand  is  applied  to  the  hypochondriac  region,  and  some- 
times to  that  of  the  ovarium,  so  that  the  touch  is  exerted 
at  once  on  many  parts,  and  these  the  most  sensitive  parts 
of  the  body. 

"The  experimenter,  after  applying  his  left  hand  in 
this  manner,  passes  his  right  hand  behind  the  woman's 
body,  and  they  incline  towards  each  other  so  as  to  favour 
this  twofold  contact.  This  causes  the  closest  proximity ; 
the  two  faces  almost  touch,  the  breath  is  interminofled, 
all  physical  impressions  are  felt  in  common,  and  the  re- 
ciprocal attraction  of  the  sexes  must  consequently  be  ex- 
cited in  all  its  force.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  senses 
are  inflamed.  The  action  of  the  imagination  at  the  same 
time  produces  a  certain  disorder  throughout  the  machine ; 
it  obscures  the  judgment,  distracts  the  attention;  the 
women  in  question  are  unable  to  take  account  of  their 
sensations,  and  are  not  aware  of  their  condition. 

"The  medical  members  of  the  commission  were  present 
to  watch  the  treatment,  and  carefully  observed  what  passed. 
When  this  kind  of  crisis  is  approaching,  the  countenance 
becomes  gradually  inflamed,  the  eye  brightens,  and  this 
is  the  sign  of  natural  desire.  The  woman  droops  her 
head,  lifts  her  hand  to  her  forehead  and  eyes  in  order 
to  cover  them ;  her  habitual  modesty  is  unconsciously 
aroused,  and  inspires  the  desire  of  concealment.  The 
crisis  continues,  however,  and  the  eye  is  obscured,  an 
unequivocal  sign  of  the  complete  disorder  of  the  senses. 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  21 

This  disorder  may  be  wholly  unperceived  by  the  woman 
who  experiences  it,  but  it  cannot  escape  the  observant 
eye  of  the  physician.  As  soon  as  this  sign  has  been 
displayed,  the  eyelids  become  moist,  the  respiration  is 
short  and  interrupted,  the  chest  heaves  rapidly,  con- 
vulsions set  in,  and  either  the  limbs  or  the  whole  body 
is  agitated  by  sudden  movements.  In  lively  and  sensitive 
women  this  last  stage,  which  terminates  the  sweetest 
emotion,  is  often  a  convulsion ;  to  this  condition  there 
succeed  languor,  prostration,  and  a  sort  of  slumber  of 
the  senses,  which  is  a  repose  necessary  after  strong 
agitation. 

".This  convulsive  state,  however  extraordinary  it  may 
appear  to  the  observers,  is  shown  to  have  nothing  painful 
or  contrary  to  nature  in  it,  from  the  fact  that,  as  soon  as 
it  is  over,  it  leaves  no  unpleasant  traces  in  its  subjects. 
There  is  nothing  disagreeable  in  the  recollection,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  the  subjects  feel  the  better  for  it,  and  have 
no  repugnance  to  enter  anew  into  the  same  state.  Since 
the  emotions  they  experience  are  the  germs  of  the  affec- 
tions and  inclinations,  we  can  understand  why  the 
magnetizer  inspires  such  attachment,  an  attachment 
likely  to  be  stronger  and  more  marked  in  women  than 
in  men,  so  long  as  men  are  entrusted  with  the  task  of 
magnetism.  Undoubtedly  many  women  have  not  ex- 
perienced these  effects,  and  others  have  not  understood 
the  cause  of  the  effects  they  experienced;  the  more  modest 
they  are,  the  less  they  would  be  likely  to  suspect  it.  But 
it  is  said  that  several  have  perceived  the  truth,  and  have 
withdrawn  from  the  magnetic  treatment,  and  those  who 
have  not  perceived  it  ought  to  be  deterred  from  ita 
pursuit. 


22  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

"The  magnetic  treatment  must  necessarily  be  danger- 
ous to  morality.  While  proposing  to  cure  diseases  which 
require  prolonged  treatment,  pleasing  and  precious  emo- 
tions are  excited,  emotions  to  which  we  look  back  with 
regret  and  seek  to  revive,  since  they  possess  a  natural 
charm  for  us,  and  contribute  to  our  physical  happiness. 
But  morally  they  must  be  condemned,  and  they  are  the 
more  dangerous  as  it  becomes  more  easy  for  them  to 
become  habitual  A  condition  into  which  a  woman 
enters  in  public,  amid  other  women  who  apparently  have 
the  same  experience,  does  not  seem  to  offer  any  danger ; 
she  continues  in  it,  she  returns  to  it,  and  discovers  her 
peril  when  it  is  too  late.  Strong  women  flee  from  this 
danger  when  they  find  themselves  exposed  to  it;  the 
morals  and  health  of  the  weak  may  be  impaired. 

"  Of  this  danger  M.  Deslon  is  aware.  On  the  9th  of 
last  May,  at  a  meeting  held  at  M.  Deslon's  own  house,  the 
lieutenant  of  police  asked  him  several  questions  on  this 
point  in  the  presence  of  the  commissioners.  M.  Lenoir 
said  to  him,  *  In  my  capacity  as  lieutenant-general  of 
police,  I  wish  to  know  whether,  when  a  woman  is  mag- 
netized and  passing  through  the  crisis,  it  would  not  be 
easy  to  outrage  her.'  M.  Deslon  replied  in  the  afiirmative, 
and  it  is  only  just  to  this  physician  to  state  that  he  has 
always  maintained  that  he  and  his  colleagues,  pledged 
by  their  position  to  act  with  probity,  were  alone  entitled 
and  privileged  to  practise  magnetism.  It  must  be  added 
that  although  his  house  contains  a  private  room  origin- 
ally intended  for  tliese  crises,  he  does  not  allow  it  to  be 
used.  The  danger  exists,  however,  notwithstanding  this 
observance  of  decency,  since  the  physician  can,  if  he  will, 
take  advantage  of  his  patient.    Such  occasions  may  occur 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  23 

daily  and  at  any  moment;  lie  is  sometimes  exposed  to 
the  danger  for  two  or  three  hours  at  a  time,  and  no  one 
can  rely  on  being  always  master  of  his  will.  Even  if 
we  ascribe  to  him  superhuman  virtue,  since  he  is  exposed 
to  emotions  which  awaken  such  desires,  the  imperious 
law  of  nature  will  affect  his  patient,  and  he  is  responsible, 
not  merely  for  his  own  wrong-doing,  but  for  that  he  may 
have  excited  in  another. 

"There  is  another  mode  of  producing  convulsions, 
a  mode  of  which  the  commissioners  have  obtained  no 
direct  and  positive  proof,  but  which  they  cannot  but 
suspect ;  namely,  a  simulated  crisis,  which  is  a  signal  for, 
or  produces  many  others,  out  of  imitation.  This  expedient 
is,  at  any  rate,  needed  to  hasten  or  maintain  the  crises 
which  are  an  advantage  to  magnetism,  since  without 
them  it  could  not  be  carried  on. 

"  There  are  no  real  cures,  and  the  treatment  is  tedious 
and  unprofitable.  There  are  patients  who  have  been 
under  treatment  for  eighteen  months  or  two  years  with- 
out deriving  any  benefit  from  it ;  at  length  their  patience 
is  exhausted,  and  they  cease  to  come.  The  crises  serve  as 
a  spectacle;  they  are  an  occupation  and  interest,  and, 
moreover,  they  are  to  the  unobservant  the  result  of  mag- 
netism, a  proof  of  the  existence  of  that  agent,  although 
they  are  really  due  to  the  power  of  the  imagination. 

"When  the  commissioners  began  their  report,  they 
only  stated  the  result  of  their  examination  of  the  mag- 
netism practised  by  M.  Deslon,  to  which  the  order  of  the 
king  had  restricted  them,  but  it  is  evident  that  their 
experiments,  observations,  and  opinions  apply  to  mag- 
netism in  general.  M.  Mesmer  will  certainly  declare 
that  the  commissioners  have  not  examined  his  method, 


24  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

proceedings,  and  the  effects  they  have  produced.  The 
commissioners  are  undoubtedly  too  cautious  to  pro- 
nounce on  that  which  they  have  not  examined,  and  with 
which  they  are  not  acquainted,  yet  they  must  observe 
that  M.  Deslon's  principles  are  those  of  the  twenty-seven 
propositions  printed  by  M.  Mesmer  in  1779. 

"  If  M.  Mesmer  has  enlarged  his  theory,  it  thereby 
becomes  more  absurd :  the  heavenly  influences  are  only  a 
chimaera,  of  which  the  fallacy  has  long  been  recognized. 
The  whole  theory  may  be  condemned  beforehand,  since  it 
is  based  upon  magnetism ;  and  it  has  no  reality,  since  the 
animal  magnetic  fluid  has  no  existence.  Like  magnetism, 
this  brilliant  theory  exists  only  in  the  imagination.  M. 
Deslon's  mode  of  magnetizing  is  the  same  as  that  of  M. 
Mesmer,  of  whom  he  is  the  disciple.  When  we  place 
them  together,  we  see  that  they  have  treated  the  same 
patients,  and,  consequently,  have  pursued  the  same 
process :  the  method  now  in  use  by  M.  Deslon  is  that  of 
M.  Mesmer. 

**The  results  also  correspond;  the  crises  are  as  violent 
and  frequent,  and  the  same  symptoms  are  displayed  under 
the  treatment  of  M.  Deslon  and  of  M.  Mesmer.  Although 
the  latter  may  ascribe  an  obscure  and  inappreciable  dif- 
ference to  his  method,  the  principles,  practice,  and  results 
are  the  same.  Even  if  there  were  any  real  difference,  no 
benefit  from  such  treatment  can  be  inferred,  after  the 
details  given  in  our  report  and  in  this  note,  intended  for 
the  king. 

"  Public  report  declares  that  M.  Mesmer 's  cures  are  not 
more  numerous  than  those  of  M.  Deslon.  There  is  nothinor 
to  prevent  the  convulsions  in  this  case  also  from  becoming 
habitual,  from  producing  an  epidemic,  and  from  being 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  25 

transmitted  to  future  generations :  such  practices  and 
assemblies  may  also  have  an  injurious  effect  upon 
morality. 

"The  commissioners'  experiments,  showing  that  all 
these  results  are  due  to  contact,  to  imagination  and 
imitation,  while  explaining  the  effects  produced  by  M. 
Deslon,  equally  explain  those  of  M.  Mesmer.  It  may, 
therefore,  reasonably  be  concluded  that,  whatever  be  the 
mystery  of  M.  Mesmer's  magnetism,  it  has  no  more  real 
existence  than  that  of  M.  Deslon,  and  that  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  one  are  not  more  useful  nor  less  dangerous 
than  those  of  the  other. 

"(Signed)  Fkanklin,  Boky,  Lavoisier,  Bailly, 
Majault,  Sallin,  D'Arcet,  Guil- 
LOTiN,  Le  Roy. 

"Paris,  August  11,  1784." 

The  Royal  Society  of  Medicine  presented  their  report 
five  days  later,  and  came  to  the  same  conclusions.  But 
one  member  of  the  commission,  Laurent  de  Jussieu, 
dissented  from  his  colleagues,  and,  with  scientific  courage, 
published  a  separate  report,  containing  his  convictions 
on  the  subject. 

De  Jussieu  had  performed  some  experiments  which 
could  not,  as  he  thought,  be  explained  by  the  imagination. 
These  facts  demonstrated,  in  his  opinion,  that  man  pro- 
duced a  sensible  action  upon  his  fellow  by  friction,  by 
contact,  and,  more  rarely,  by  simple  proximity.  This 
action,  ascribed  to  an  universal  fluid  not  yet  demon- 
strated, was,  he  said,  certainly  due  to  animal  heat,  which 
he  elsewhere  terms  animalized  electric  fluid.  With  respect 
to  the  theory  of  animal  magnetism,  he  did  not  reject  it 
as  absolutely  as  Bailly,  who  said,  "Everything  is  done  by 


26  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

the  imagination;  magnetism  has  nothing  to  do  with  it." 
He  was  content  with  saying,  much  more  wisely,  that  the 
theory  of  magnetism  could  only  be  accepted  when  it  was 
developed  and  supported  by  substantial  proofs.  In  short, 
as  Dechambre  remarks,  the  idea  pervades  this  report 
that  Mesmer  is  on  the  track  of  a  fruitful  truth.  This 
presentiment  of  the  illustrious  naturalist  was  soon  to  be 
confirmed ;  and,  moreover,  it  is  worth  while  to  consider 
some  of  the  assertions  in  de  Jussieu  s  paper,  since  they 
contain  an  element  of  truth. 

The  efficacy  of  the  action  of  contact  and  friction  is 
proved  by  the  existence  in  certain  subjects  of  hypnogenic 
zones,  of  which  the  slightest  stimulation  produces  som- 
nambulism. M.  Charcot  has  shown  that  the  irritation  of 
hysterogenic  zones  produces  convulsions,  and  these  zones 
are  generally  seated  in  the  hypochondriac,  or  in  the 
ovarian  regions,  on  which  Mesmer  preferred  to  exercise 
his  manipulations. 

After  Bailly's  report,  Mesmer  left  France,  and  returned 
to  Germany.  His  part  was  played  out,  and  we  shall  not 
recur  to  it.  His  friends  have  represented  him  as  a  man 
desirous  of  fame,  but  at  the  same  time  full  of  love  for 
suffering  humanity.  Public  opinion,  more  severe  in  its 
judgment,  regards  him  as  the  type  of  the  scientific 
charlatan. 

Up  to  this  time,  animal  magnetism  had  not  been  dis- 
covered ;  it  probably  had  something  to  do  with  most  of 
the  mesmeric  phenomena,  with  the  haquet,  etc.;  but  it  was 
not  recognized  amid  the  nervous  crises  excited  by  Mesmer. 
It  is  to  one  of  his  disciples,  to  the  Marquis  Arm  and  Jacques 
Marc  Chastenet  de  Puys^gur,  that  the  discovery  must 
be  ascribed  of  animal  magnetism,  or  of  artificial  som- 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  27 

nambulism,  which  ought,  therefore,  to  bear  the  name  of 
Puysegurian  somnambulism.* 

In  May,  1784,  M.  de  Puysegur,  living  in  retirement 
on  his  estate  of  Buzancy,  near  Soissons,  employed  his 
leisure  in  magnetizing  peasants,  after  the  manner  of  his 
master,  and  on  one  occasion  he  chanced  to  observe  the 
production  of  an  entirely  new  phenomenon.!  A  young 
peasant  named  Victor,  twenty-three  years  of  age,  who 
had  been  suflfering  for  four  days  from  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  was  thrown  by  magnetism  into  a  peaceful 
sleep,  unaccompanied  by  convulsions  or  suffering.  He 
spoke  aloud,  and  was  busied  about  his  private  affairs.  It 
was  easy  to  change  the  direction  of  his  thoughts,  to  in- 
spire him  with  cheerful  sentiments,  and  he  then  became 
happy,  and  imagined  that  he  was  firing  at  a  mark  or 
dancing  at  a  village  fete.  In  his  waking  state  he  was 
simple  and  foolish,  but  during  the  crisis  his  intelligence 
was  remarkable ;  there  was  no  need  of  speaking  to  him, 
since  he  could  understand  and  reply  to  the  thoughts  of 
those  present.  He  himself  indicated  the  treatment 
necessary  in  his  illness,  and  he  was  soon  cured. 

This  is  a  brief  account  of  the  peasant  Victor's  case. 
The  news  of  his  cure  was  rapidly  spread  abroad,  and 
from  all  sides  there  was  a  concourse  of  sick  people 
demanding  relief.     The  phenomenon  was  repeated,  to  de 

*  The  following  are  the  works  of  Puysegur : — M^moires  pour  servir  a 
VHistoire  du  Magn^tisme  animal,  1784;  Suite  auz  Memoires,  1805;  Du 
Magn^tisme  animal,  etc.^  1807  ;  Eecherches,  Experiences  et  Observations 
physiologiques  sur  Vhomme,  dans  l'€tat  de  somnambulisme  naturel,  et  dans 
le  somnamhulisme  provoqu^  par  Vacte  magne'tique,  1811;  etc. 

t  Puysegur  asserts  that  Mesmer  must  have  beeu  acquainted  with 
Bomnambulism,  but  that  he  did  not  choose  to  mention  his  discovery  to  his 
disciples. 


28  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

Puys^gur's  great  joy,  and  he  wrote :  "  My  head  is  turned 
with  joy,  now  that  I  see  what  good  I  am  doing."  Since 
he  was  unable  to  minister  to  the  continually  increasing 
number  of  patients,  the  marquis  pursued  Mesmer's  plan 
of  magnetizing  an  elm  which  grew  on  the  village  green 
at  Buzancy.  The  patients  were  seated  on  stone  benches 
round  this  tree,  with  cords  connecting  its  branches  with 
the  affected  parts  of  their  bodies,  and  they  formed  a 
chain  by  linking  their  thumbs  together.  Meanwhile  de 
Puysegur  chose  from  among  his  patients  several  subjects 
who,  through  contact  with  his  hands  or  on  the  presenta- 
tion of  a  metallic  tractor,  fell  into  the  ordinary  crisis, 
and  this  soon  passed  into  a  sleep  in  which  all  physical 
faculties  appeared  to  be  suspended,  while  the  mental 
faculties  were  enlarged. 

Cloquet,  an  eye-witness,*  has  given  us  some  valuable 
information  on  the  subject.  He  says  that  the  patient's 
eyes  were  closed,  and  there  was  no  sense  of  hearing, 
unless  it  was  awakened  by  the  master's  voice.  Care  was 
taken  not  to  touch  the  patient  during  his  crisis,  nor  even 
the  chair  on  which  he  was  seated,  as  this  would  produce 
suffering  and  convulsions,  which  could  only  be  subdued 
by  the  master.  To  rouse  them  from  the  trance,  the 
master  touched  the  patient's  eyes,  or  said,  "  Go  and 
embrace  the  tree."  Then  they  arose,  still  asleep,  went 
straight  to  the  tree,  and  soon  afterwards  opened  their 
eyes.  As  soon  as  they  returned  to  a  normal  condition, 
the  patients  retained  no  recollection  of  what  had  occurred 
during  the  three  or  four  hours'  crisis. 

But  it  was  the  cure  of  diseases  at  which  de  Puysegur 

♦  Ddails  des  cures  op^r^es  a  Buzancy,  pres  Suissons  par  le  magn^isme 
animal.     Soissons:  1784. 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  29 

aimed  :  therapeutics  were  his  object,  as  it  had  been  that  of 
Mesmer.  He  observed,  or  thought  that  he  observed,  that 
during  the  crisis,  the  patients  possessed  a  supernatural 
power  which  entitled  them  to  be  called  physicians ;  it 
was,  in  fact,  enough  for  them  to  touch  through  his  clothes 
the  sick  person  presented  to  them,  in  order  to  feel  the 
part  affected,  and  to  indicate  fitting  remedies.  Since 
they  were  solely  occupied  with  this  question,  de  Puys^gur 
and  the  other  magnetizers  who  followed  his  example  in 
Lyons,  Bordeaux,  Bayonne,  Marseilles,  etc.,  did  not  study 
the  natural  history  of  this  artificial  sleep.  De  Puys^gur, 
like  Mesmer,  was  a  healer.  But  in  the  case  of  de  Puyse- 
gur  s  treatment  we  agree  with  Dechambre  that  if  his 
faith  was  robust,  so  likewise  was  his  honesty.  There 
was  no  public  exhibition,  nothing  was  done  to  strike  the 
imagination;  there  was  no  selection  of  subjects  from 
among  silly  or  melancholic  women.  His  patients  of  both 
sexes  were  of  the  peasant  class,  and  were  often  suffering 
from  severe  and  obstinate  diseases.  De  Puysegur's  honesty 
and  disinterestedness  contrast  well  with  Mesmer's  avarice. 
As  far  as  de  Puysegur's  theoretic  views  are  concerned, 
they  are  slight  modifications  of  those  of  Mesmer.  As 
little  versed  in  physical  science  as  his  master,  he  always 
maintains  the  existence  of  an  universal  fluid,  of  which 
he  recognizes  the  electric  nature  ;  this  fluid  saturates  all 
bodies,  and  especially  the  human  body,  which  has  a 
perfect  electric  organization,  and  is  an  animated  electric 
machine.  Man  can  display  this  electric  fluid  at  pleasure, 
and  diffuse  it  externally  by  his  movements,  in  order  to 
produce  somnambulism.  It  is  curious  that  de  Puysegur 
should  have  strongly  condemned  the  use  of  magnets  in 
the  treatment  of  disease,  and  of  all  electricity  foreign 


•V 


30  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

to  our  organism.  This  dogma  has  been  falsified,  and,  as 
we  are  aware,  electro-therapeutics  has  come  into  use. 

In  this  way  de  Puysegur  modified  the  tradition  he 
had  received  from  Mesmer,  and  simple  contact  or 
spoken  orders  were  substituted  for  the  use  of  the  haquet 
There  were  no  more  violent  crises,  accompanied  by  cries, 
sobs,  and  the  contortions  of  an  attack  of  hysteria ;  instead 
of  these,  there  was  a  calm,  peaceful,  healthy,  and  composed 
slumber.  This  was  not  a  transformed  phase  of  mag- 
netism, but  the  actual  discovery  of  this  state,  of  which 
the  honour  is  due  to  de  Puysegur. 

It  is  easy  to  disentangle  the  portion  of  truth  which 
exists  in  the  descriptions  of  the  magnetic  sleep  left  by 
de  Puysegur.  He  has  carefully  observed  the  obedience 
of  the  magnetized  subjects  to  the  magnetizer's  orders, 
who  directs  their  thoughts  and  acts  at  his  pleasure.  We 
shall  presently  study  this  symptom  under  the  name  of 
suggestion.  He  has  also  observed  the  patient's  uncon- 
sciousness, and  that  he  retains  no  recollection  of  what 
has  occurred  during  sleep.  We  shall  see  that  this  uncon- 
sciousness is  a  frequent  and  almost  constant  phenomenon 
during  profound  hypnotism.  Finally,  the  descriptions 
show  the  singular  afiinity  which  seems  to  exist  between 
the  magnetizer  and  his  subject;  a  phenomenon  which 
is  shown  in  some  curious  ways :  the  magnetizer  alone 
must  touch  the  sleeping  subject,  for  fear  of  producing 
sufiering  and  even  convulsions.  All  this  is  accurate, 
established  by  science,  and  now  admitted  by  every  one. 
But  it  is  not  yet  admitted  that  the  subject  is  able  to 
.  divine  the  thoughts  of  the  magnetizer  without  any 
material  communication,  nor  that  the  patient  is  acquainted 
with  the  nature  of  his  disease,  and  can  indicate  effectual 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM  IN  ITS  BEGINNINGS.  31 

remedies  and  foresee  future  events.  De  Puys^gur  tried 
to  give  this  faculty  an  air  of  probability  by  naming  it 
pressentation. 

Mesmer's  theory  had  been  condemned  by  the  judg- 
ment of  scientific  bodies,  and  this  judgment  was  not 
reversed  by  de  Puysegur's  experiments,  in  which  there 
was  too  much  of  the  supernatural.  Professional  magne- 
tizers  adopted  his  experiments  as  the  theme  of  their 
discourses.  We  can  also  understand  the  favour  with 
which  his  assertion  of  the  clairvoyance  of  somnam- 
bulists was  received,  since  this  was  a  new  form  of  the 
gift  of  divination  which  had  always  obtained  credence. 
Numerous  magnetic  societies  were  formed  in  different 
parts  of  France,  especially,  as  Thouret  states,  in  those 
towns  which  possessed  no  university,  and  which  were 
therefore  less  under  control.  The  Harmonic  Society, 
however,  founded  at  Strasburg,  consisted  of  more  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  members. 

We  must  mention  in  passing  Pete  tin's  experiments 
in  catalepsy,  since  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be  the 
first,  or  one  of  the  first,  to  observe  the  phenomena  of  the 
transposition  of  the  senses.  Petetin  was  a  Lyons 
physician,  President  of  the  Medical  Societ}^  in  that  city, 
and  opposed  to  the  new  theories  of  magnetism.  He 
observed  and  exhibited  to  his  colleagues  a  cataleptic 
woman  who  saw,  heard,  felt,  smelled,  and  tasted  by 
means  of  the  epigastric  region  and  of  the  finger-tips. 
This  occurred  in  1787.  After  Petetin's  death  a  paper 
by  him  appeared,  containing  seven  observations  of  the 
same  kind.  He  ascribed  these  strange  phenomena  to 
the  accumulation  of  the  animal  electric  fluid  in  certain 
parts  of  the  body.     The  magnetizers  seized  upon  this  fact, 


32  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

and  we  shall  see  that  for  some  time  to  come  the  question 
of  the  transposition  of  the  senses  was  predominant. 

Up  to  the  year  1820,  we  find  no  work  to  quote, 
except  that  of  the  naturalist  Deleuze,  on  the  history  of 
magnetism.  His  book  is  entitled  Histoire  critique  du 
Magnetisme  animal  (1813);  it  is  a  crude  work,  which  has 
been  estimated  much  above  its  real  value,  and  while  it 
displays  the  honesty  and  sincerity  of  its  author,  it  adds 
nothing  to  the  sum  of  our  knowledge  on  the  subject. 

Deleuze,  like  his  predecessors,  was  chiefly  concerned 
with  the  curative  virtues  of  magnetism;  and  in  order 
to  prove  their  reality,  he  found  no  better  expedient 
than  to  advise  the  incredulous  to  make  use  of  it  in 
various  diseases.  He  said,  moreover,  that  faith  was 
essential  to  success,  thus  dispensing  with  any  legitimate 
demonstration.  Magnetism  was  held  to  be  applicable 
to  all  diseases,  and  constituted,  as  in  the  days  of  de 
Puysegur  and  of  Mesmer,  an  universal  panacea.  At 
about  the  same  period,  in  1813,  a  thaumaturgist  named 
Faria,  who  came  from  the  Indies,  gave  public  representa- 
tions, for  money,  of  the  wonders  which  could  be  eflfected 
by  means  of  magnetism.  The  process  by  which  he 
induced  sleep  was  curious.  He  seated  the  subject  in  an 
armchair,  with  closed  eyes,  and  then  cried  out  in  a 
loud  and  imperious  voice,  "  Go  to  sleep  ! "  After  a  slight 
movement,  the  subject  sometimes  feU  into  a  condition 
I  which  Faria  termed  a  lucid  slumber.  This  charlatan  had 
rightly  observed  that  the  cause  of  somnambulism  rests 
in  the  subject  himself.  He  truly  said  that  sleep  might 
be  induced  at  the  will  of  the  subject,  or  when  such  will 
was  absent,  or  even  when  it  was  exerted  in  the  contrary 
sense. 


(    33    ) 


CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM — THE  ACADEMIC 
PERIOD. 

In  1820  it  might  have  been  supposed  that  animal 
magnetism  was  about  to  enter  upon  a  scientific  era.  Dr. 
Bertrand,  a  former  pupil  of  the  Polytechnic  School,  had 
just  brought  the  subject  before  the  public  in  a  course 
of  lectures.  General  Noizet,  about  the  same  time,  drew 
up  a  paper  for  the  Royal  Academy  of  Berlin  on  somnam- 
bulism and  animal  magnetism.  Experiments  were  per- 
formed in  the  hospitals,  directed  at  the  Hotel-Dieu  by 
Du  Potet,  pupil  of  Husson,  and  at  the  Salpetriere  by 
Georget  and  Rostan.  The  experiments  made  on  hysterical 
patients  were  not  such  as  to  modify  the  scepticism  of 
the  scientific  world,  and  it  was  thought  probable  that 
the  experimenters  had  been  deceived  by  their  patients. 
Indeed  Petronille,  one  of  George t's  well-known  somnam- 
bulists, afterwards  confessed  that  she  had  imposed  on 
the  observers.  But  Richer  justly  observes  that  such 
confidences  are  the  common  boasts  of  hysterical  patients, 
and  that  those  who  believe  them  incur  the  same  reproach 
of  credulity  as  their  opponents  are  charged  with. 

The  general  council  of  the  hospitals  put  an  end  to 
these  operations,  on  the  ground  that  the  patients  should 


34  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

not  be  subjected  to  such  experiment,  but  on  all  sides  the 
need  of  some  definite  proof  was  felt. 

In  1825  Foissac  induced  the  Academy  of  Medicine, 
which  had  succeeded  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Medicine, 
to  take  part  in  the  controversy.  He  drew  up  a  paper, 
in  which  he  undertook  to  show  that  simple  contact 
enabled  his  somnambulists  to  diagnose  their  diseases, 
with  an  intuition  worthy  of  the  genius  of  Hippocrates. 
Although  such  language  did  not  seem  to  be  adapted  to 
convince  the  Academy,  its  members  nominated  a  com- 
mission charged  to  decide  whether  it  was  expedient  to 
undertake  a  fresh  examination  into  the  question  of 
animal  magnetism.  The  report  presented  by  Husson 
was  in  favour  of  such  an  examination,  and  the  Academy, 
by  a  majority  of  thirty-five  votes  against  twenty-five, 
nominated  a  commission  of  inquiry,  consisting  of  Bourdois, 
Double,  Fouquier,  Itard,  Gueneau  de  Mussy,  Guersant, 
Leroux,  Magendie,  Marc,  Thillaye,  and  Husson.  Magendie 
and  Double,  finding  that  the  experiments  were  not  very 
carefully  performed,  took  no  part  in  the  labours  of  the 
commission.  At  the  end  of  five  years'  patient  research,  in 
June,  1831,  Husson  presented  a  report  in  which  the  exist- 
ence of  animal  magnetism  was  affirmed.  "The  results 
are  negative  or  insufficient  in  the  majority  of  cases," 
the  report  declares;  "in  others  they  are  produced  by 
weariness,  monotony,  or  by  the  imagination.  It  appears, 
however,  that  some  results  depend  solely  on  magnetism, 
and  cannot  be  produced  without  it.  These  are  physio- 
logical phenomena,  and  well  established  therapeutically." 
The  importance  of  this  work  decides  us  to  reproduce 
its  principal  conclusions  in  extenso. 

"The  contact  of  the  thumbs  and  hands,  friction,  or 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  35 

the  employment  of  certain  gestures  within  a  short 
distance  of  the  body,  which  are  called  passes,  are  the 
means  employed  to  place  the  patient  en  rapport,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  transmit  the  action  of  the  magnetizer 
to  his  subject. 

"The  time  necessary  for  transmitting  and  effecting 
this  magnetic  action  varies  from  half  an  hour  to  one 
minute. 

"When  once  a  person  has  been  thrown  into  the 
magnetic  sleep,  it  is  not  always  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  contact  and  passes  in  order  to  magnetize  him 
afresh.  A  glance  from  the  magnetizer,  or  his^  will  alone, 
may  have  the  same  influence, 

"  The  effects  produced  by  magnetism  are  extremely 
varied ;  it  agitates  some  people  and  calms  others ;  it 
generally  causes  a  momentary  quickening  of  the  respira- 
tion and  of  the  circulation ;  this  is  followed  by  fibrillary, 
convulsive  movements  like  those  produced  by  electric 
shocks;  by  a  more  or  less  profound  torpor;  by  stupor 
and  somnolence;  and,  in  a  few  instances,  by  what 
ma^jnetizers  term  somnambulism. 

"  The  perceptions  and  faculties  of  individuals  who  are 
thrown  by  magnetism  into  a  state  of  somnambulism  are 
modified  in  various  ways. 

"  Some,  amid  the  noise  of  general  conversation,  only 
hear  the  voice  of  their  magnetizer ;  many  make  a  direct 
reply  to  the  questions  which  he  or  the  persons  with 
whom  they  are  placed  en  rapport  address  to  them ; 
others  converse  with  all  those  who  surround  them;  in 
few  instances  are  they  aware  of  what  is  passing.  They 
are  generally  completely  unconscious  of  any  sudden 
external  noise   made   close   to   their   ears,  such   as   the 


36  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

striking  of  copper  vessels,  the  fall  of  a  piece  of  furni- 
ture, etc. 

*  The  eyes  are  closed,  and  the  lids  yield  with  difficulty 
to  any  effort  made  with  the  hand  to  open  them.  This 
operation  causes  pain,  and  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  then 
seen  to  be  contracted  and  turned  upwards,  or  sometimes 
towards  the  base  of  the  orbit. 

"  Sometimes  the  sense  of  smell  is  altogether  absent, 
and  they  may  be  made  to  breathe  nitric  acid  or  am- 
monia without  being  incommoded,  or  even  without  their 
becoming  aware  of  it.  But  this  is  not  always  the  case, 
and  some  subjects  retain  the  sense  of  smell. 

*'  Most  of  the  somnambulists  whom  we  have  observed 
were  completely  insensible.  The  feet  might  be  tickled, 
the  nostrils  and  the  corner  of  the  eyelid  might  be  touched 
with  a  feather,  the  skin  might  be  pinched  until  it  was 
discoloured,  pins  might  suddenly  be  driven  to  some  deptii 
under  the  nails,  and  the  subjects  would  betray  no  sign 
of  pain,  nor  even  a  consciousness  of  the  fact.  Finally,  a 
somnambulist  has  been  rendered  insensible  to  one  of  the 
most  painful  surgical  operations,  and  neither  the  counte- 
nance, the  pulse,  nor  the  respiration  betrayed  the 
slightest  emotion. 

"We  have  only  observed  one  individual  who  was 
thrown  into  the  state  of  somnambulism  when  magnetized 
for  the  first  time.  Sometimes  somnambulism  only  occurs 
after  the  eighth  or  tenth  seance. 

"We  have  constantly  observed  that  natural  sleep, 
which  is  the  repose  of  the  organs  of  the  senses,  of  the 
intellectual  faculties,  and  of  voluntary  movements, 
precedes  and  terminates  the  state  of  somnambulism. 

"The  magnetized  subjects  whom  we  have  observed 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  37 

under  somnambulism  retain  the  faculties  of  the  wakinor 

o 

state.  The  memory  even  appears  to  be  more  retentive 
and  of  wider  range,  since  they  recollect  all  that  occurred 
on  each  previous  occasion  when  they  were  under  som- 
nambulism. 

"We  have  observed  two  somnambulists  who  were 
able,  with  closed  eyes,  to  distinguish  the  objects  placed 
before  them ;  who  could  declare,  without  touching  them ; 
the  suit  and  value  of  playing  cards;  who  could  read 
words  traced  with  the  hand,  or  some  lines  from  a  book 
opened  at  random.  This  phenomenon  has  even  occurred 
when  the  fingers  are  firmly  pressed  upon  the  closed 
eyelids.* 

*  "On  January  12  there  was  a  meeting  of  tlie  commission  at  the 
house  of  M,  Foissac.  This  physician  announced  that  he  shouhl  put  Paul 
to  sleep ;  that  when  he  was  in  this  state  of  somnambulism,  a  finger  would 
be  applied  to  each  closed  eyelid,  and  that  in  spite  of  this  he  would 
distinguish  the  colour  of  cards,  he  would  read  the  title  of  a  book,  or 
some  words  or  lines  indicated  at  random  in  the  book  itself.  After  the 
magnetic  passes  had  been  made  for  two  minutes,  Paul  was  thrown  into 
sleep.  The  eyelids  were  kept  constantly  closed,  in  turn  by  Fouquier, 
Itard,  INIarc,  and  the  reporter,  and  a  new  pack  of  cards  was  presented  to 
him,  from  which  the  royal  stamp  was  freshly  removed.  When  these  were 
shuffled  together,  Paul  named  them  successively  without  effort :  the  king 
of  spades,  tlie  ace  of  clubs,  the  queen  of  spades,  the  nine  of  clubs,  the 
seven,  the  queen,  and  the  eight  of  diamonds. 

"  When  the  eyelids  were  kept  closed  by  Segalas,  a  volume  w'th  which 
the  reporter  was  provided  was  presented  to  him.  He  read  from  the  title- 
page,  Histoire  de  France,  was  unable  to  read  the  two  intermediate  lines,  and 
could  read  only  the  name  of  Anquetil  on  the  fifth  line,  where  it  is  preceded 
by  the  preposition  par.  The  book  was  then  opened  at  page  88,  and  he  read 
tlie  first  line :  *  le  nomhre  de  ses  .  .  .'  He  missed  the  word  troupes,  and  went 
on,  *Au  moment  ou  on  le  croyait  le  plus  occupy  des  plainrfi  du  carnavaV 
He  likewise  read  the  running  title  Louis,  but  was  unable  to  read  the 
Koraan  figures  which  followed  it.  A  paper  was  presented  him  on 
which  were  written  the  words  agglutination  and  magn^lisme  animal. 
He  spelled  the  first  word,  and  pronounced  the  two  others.  Finally, 
the  report  of  this    s<fance  was  presented   to  him;    he  read  the  dato 


38  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

"In  two  somnambulists  we  observed  the  power  of 
foreseeing  the  more  or  less  remote  or  complicated  acts 
of  the  organism.  One  of  them  announced,  several  days, 
and  even  months,  in  advance,  the  day,  hour,  and  minute 
on  which  an  epileptic  attack  would  occur ;  the  other 
indicated  the  epoch  of  his  cure.  Their  previsions  were 
verified  with  remarkable  accuracy.  These  appear  only  to 
apply  to  the  acts  and  lesions  of  their  own  organisms. 

"  We  only  observed  one  somnambulist  who  indicated 
the  symptoms  of  the  diseases  of  three  persons  with 
whom  he  was  placed  en  rapport,  although  we  inquired 
into  a  considerable  number  of  cases.* 

with  some  distinctness,  and  some  of  the  words  which  were  more  Irgibly 
written  than  the  rest.  In  all  these  experiments  the  fingers  were  applied 
to  tlie  whole  surface  of  ea  h  eye,  by  pressing  the  upper  on  the  lower  lid 
from  above  in  a  downward  direction,  and  we  observed  that  there  was  a 
constant  rotatory  movement  of  the  eyeball,  as  if  it  were  directed  towards 
the  object  presented  to  the  vision." — Text  of  the  Report. 

♦  "  M.  Marc,  a  member  of  the  commission,  consented  to  undergo  ex- 
amination by  a  somnambulist,  and  Mile.  Celine  was  requested  to  consider 
attentively  the  state  of  our  colleague's  health.  She  applied  her  hand  to 
his  forehead  and  to  the  region  of  the  heart,  and  at  the  end  of  three  minutes 
she  said  that  there  was  a  determination  of  blood  to  the  head,  and  that  on 
its  left  side  M.  Marc  was  now  suffering  from  pain;  that  he  was  often 
oppressed,  especially  after  eating ;  that  he  was  subj(!ct  to  a  hacking  cough; 
that  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  was  congested  with  blood ;  that  there  was 
obstruction  to  the  passage  of  food;  that  there  was  a  contraction  in  the 
region  of  the  ensiform  appendix ;  and  that  in  order  to  effect  a  cure,  M, 
Marc  should  be  frequently  bled,  that  hemlock  plasters  should  be  applied, 
that  he  should  be  rubbed  with  laudanum  on  the  lower  part  of  the  chest. 
that  he  should  drink  lemonade  prepared  with  gum  Arabic,  that  he  should 
eat  little  and  often,  and  not  go  out  walking  immediately  after  meals. 

"  We  were  anxious  to  hear  whether  M.  Marc's  experience  agreed  with 
the  somnambulist's  assertions.  He  said  that  he  really  suffered  from 
oppression  after  eating,  that  he  was  subject  to  a  cough,  and  had  pain  on 
the  riglit  side  of  the  head,  but  that  he  was  not  conscious  of  any  uneasiness 
in  the  digestive  canal. 

"  We  were  struck  by  the  analogy  between  M.  Marc's  sensatiouB  and  the 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  39 

"Some  of  the  magnetized  patients  experienced  no 
benefit.  Others  derived  more  or  less  relief  from  the 
treatment ;  in  one  case  habitual  suffering  was  suspended, 
in  another  strength  returned,  in  a  third  epileptic  attacks 
were  averted  for  several  months,  and  in  a  fourth  serious 
paralysis  of  long  standing  was  completely  cured. 

"  Considered  as  the  agent  of  physiological  phenomena, 
or  as  a  therapeutic  expedient,  magnetism  must  take  its 
place  in  the  scheme  of  medical  science,  and  consequently 
it  should  be  practised  or  superintended  by  physicians 
only,  which  is  the  rule  in  northern  countries. 

"The  commission  has  had  no  opportunity  of  verifying 
the  other  faculties  which  are  said  by  magnetizers  to  be 
possessed  by  somnambulists.  But  the  facts  collected  and 
now  set  down,  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  the 
belief  that  the  Academy  ought  to  encourage  researches 
into  magnetism,  since  it  is  an  interesting  branch  of 
psychology  and  of  natural  history. 

"  (Signed)  Bourdois  de  la  Motte,  Fouquier, 
Gu^NEAu  de  Mussy,  Guersant, 
Itard,  J.  Leroux,  Marc,  Thil- 
LAYE,  HussoN  (reporter)." 

Such  was  the  celebrated  report,  of  which  the  mag- 
netizers  made  so  much  that  the  Academy  did  not  venture 
to  print  it. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  commissioners  did  not 
pursue  in  their  researches  a  rigorously  scientific  method. 
Since  they  were  chiefly  desirous  to  prove  the  existence 

assertions  of  the  somnambulist :  we  noted  it  carefully,  and  await  a  future 
opportunity  of  confirming  tlie  existence  of  this  singular  faculty.'* — Text  of 
B€;port. 


40  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

or  non-existence  of  animal  magnetism,  they  applied 
themselves  almost  exclusively  to  the  study  of  extra- 
ordinary facts.  They  thought  that  if  the  results  of  a 
given  experiment  exceeded  the  limits  of  the  possible, 
animal  magnetism  would  thereby  be  proved.  In  this 
way  the  question  was  wrongly  stated,  since  it  was 
possible  that  magnetism  might  be  at  once  a  natural 
fact,  and  a  fact  w^hich  agreed  with  known  physio- 
logical laws.  The  commissioners  did  not  understand 
this  elementary  truth.  Impelled  by  curiosity  with  re- 
spect to  the  marvellous  and  the  supernatural,  they 
directed  their  attention  to  those  phenomena  which 
were  the  most  disputed  and  the  most  open  to  dispute, 
such  as  the  transposition  of  the  senses,  the  power  of 
reading  wi^jh  bandaged  eyes  or  vision  by  means  of  the 
internal  organs,  by  the  epigastrium  or  the  occiput, 
together  with  the  diagnosis  of  diseases  and  an  acquaint- 
ance with  their  remedies. 

It  appears  that  on  all  these  points  the  conduct  of  the 
inquiry  was  unsatisfactory,  and  that  the  commissioners 
neglected  to  take  any  sufficient  precautions.  Some  of 
the  experiments  were  really  futile.  The  report  states 
that  a  somnambulist  named  Petit,  whose  eyes  were  so 
firmly  closed  that  the  eyelashes  were  interlaced,  and 
who  was  constantly  watched  by  commissioners  who 
"held  the  light,"  was  able  to  read  what  was  presented 
to  him,  and  played  several  games  of  piquet  with  great 
spirit.  It  does  not  appear  that  any  precautions  were 
taken  to  prevent  this  individual  from  reading  through  his 
eyelashes.  The  commissioners  were  content  to  watch  his 
eyes,  and  it  did  not  occur  to  them  that  there  is  nothing 
more  easy  than  to  read  with  the  eyes  apparently  closed 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  41 

At  another  seance,  Paul,  a  young  law-student,  over 
whose  eyes  a  commissioner  placed  his  hand,  displayed 
a  marvellous  clairvoyance;  he  divined  the  cards  in  a 
pack  and  could  read  almost  fluently.  The  reporter 
observed,  however,  that  the  eyeball  was  constantly 
rolling,  and  appeared  to  be  directed  towards  the  object 
presented  to  the  vision.  When  we  add  that  the  young 
man  read  slowly,  before  a  large  circle,  and  that  he  made 
mistakes,  we  shall  agree  with  Segalas,  a  member  of  the 
Academy,  who  had  himself  on  one  occasion  kept  the 
eyes  of  the  subject  closed,  that  it  was  probably  possible 
to  move  the  eyelids,  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  some  of  the 
words,  and  to  guess  the  rest.  At  any  rate,  more  careful 
experiments  were  needed  before  admitting  that  it  is 
possible  to  see  and  i:ead  with  closed  eyes.  We  do  not 
speak  of  internal  vision,  of  the  prevision  of  crises,  and 
the  instinctive  knowledge  of  remedies,  since  the  experi- 
ments were  all  of  the  same  stamp. 

Together  with  these  unsatisfactory  statements,  we 
find  some  good  descriptions  of  somnambulism.  The 
commissioners  observed  that  when  the  subjects  were 
put  to  sleep  they  presented  "an  acceleration  of  the 
pulse  and  of  the  breathing,  fibrillary  movements  like 
those  produced  by  electric  shocks,  stupor,  and  somno- 
lence. .  .  .  The  subject  sometimes  made  a  direct  reply 
to  the  question  addressed  to  him,  but  in  general  he 
was  quite  unconscious  of  any  sudden  noise  made  at 
his  ear.  .  .  .  The  eyes  were  closed,  and  on  raising 
the  eyelid,  the  pupil  was  seen  to  be  contracted  and 
turned  upwards.  .  .  .  The  surface  of  the  body  was 
generally  insensible  to  pain;  .  .  .  the  skin  might  be 
pinched  until  it  was  discoloured,  pins  might  be  driven 


42  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

under  the  nails  without  disturbing  the  subject's  im- 
passibility." All  this  description  is  excellent:  it  is 
unfortunate  that  the  commissioners,  who  observed  the 
natural  phenomenon  with  such  accuracy,  were  unable 
to  detach  it  from  the  phantasmagoria  by  which  it  was 
surrounded. 

Finally,  the  commissioners  were  mistaken  in  two 
points.  First,  in  confounding  the  question  of  animal 
magnetism  with  the  extraordinary  and  supernatural 
phenomena  described  by  the  magnetizers ;  secondly,  in 
not  bringing  to  a  study  of  these  phenomena,  which 
required  the  utmost  caution,  the  rigorous  care  which  we 
have  a  right  to  demand  from  an  academical  commission. 

The  Academy,  which  did  not  include  among  its 
members  many  partisans  of  magnetism,  was  somewhat 
astonished  by  Husson's  report.  It  was  read  in  the 
meetings  held  on  the  21st  and  28th  of  June,  1831. 
But  there  was  no  public  debate,  nor  was  the  question 
put  to  the  vote.  The  report  was  not  even  printed, 
only  committed  to  writing.  The  Academy  shrank  from 
deciding  such  burning  questions. 

In  1837  the  brooding  discussion  burst  forth,  on 
account  of  the  painless  extraction  of  a  tooth  during  the 
magnetic  sleep,  which  was  related  by  M.  Oudet. 

Berna,  a  young  magnetizer,  implored  the  attention 
of  the  Academy  of  Medicine,  and  a  fresh  commission  was 
nominated.  It  consisted  of  Roux,  Bouillaud,  Cloquet, 
Emery,  Pelletier,  Caventou,  Cornac,  Oudet,  and  Dubois, 
the  last-named  acting  as  reporter.  The  Academy  was 
again  drawn  in  the  wrong  direction.  Berna  urged  them 
to  examine  extraordinary  phenomena,  such  as  vision 
without  using  the  eyes,  and  the  communication  of  the 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  43 

magnetizer's  thoughts  to  his  subject,  phenomena  which 
he  boasted  of  producing  in  two  of  his  somnambulist 
subjects. 

The  results  of  this  inquiry,  which  was  conducted 
with  greater  care  than  that  of  the  previous  commis- 
sion, were  negative.  We  give  the  conclusions  of  this 
report,  as  we  have  already  given  those  of  Husson's 
report. 

"1st  Conclusion, — Dubois,  in  terminating  his  report, 
states  that  it  appears  from  all  the  facts  and  incidents 
witnessed  by  us  that,  in  the  first  place,  no  special  proof 
has  been  given  to  us  as  to  the  existence  of  a  special 
state,  called  the  state  of  magnetic  somnambulism ;  that 
it  is  only  by  way  of  assertion,  and  not  by  way  of  de- 
monstration, that  the  magnetizer  has  afiirmed  at  each 
seance,  before  undertaking  any  experiments,  that  his 
subjects  were  in  a  state  of  somnambulism. 

"It  is  true  that,  according  to  the  magnetizer's  pro- 
gramme, we  might  be  assured  that  the  subject,  before 
he  was  thrown  into  a  state  of  somnambulism,  was 
in  perfect  possession  of  all  his  senses,  that  for  this 
purpose  we  were  to  prick  him,  and  that  he  would  then 
be  put  to  sleep  in  the  presence  of  the  commissioners. 
But  it  appeared  from  our  experiments  at  the  seance  of 
the  3rd  of  March,  and  before  any  magnetizing  process 
had  taken  place,  that  the  subject  of  experiment  was  as 
insensible  to  pin-pricks  before  the  supposed  sleep  as  he 
was  when  it  had  occurred;  that  his  countenance  and 
replies  varied  little  before  and  after  the  so-called  mag- 
netic sleep.  Your  commissioners  are  unable  to  decide 
whether  this  was  from  inadvertence,  from  a  natural  or 
acquired  insensibility  to  pain,  or  from  an  unreasonable 


44  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

desire  to  attract  attention.  It  is  true  that  we  were  told 
on  each  occasion  that  the  subjects  were  asleep,  but  this 
was  purely  a  matter  of  assertion. 

"If,  however,  experiments  made  upon  subjects  pre- 
sumed to  be  in  a  state  of  somnambulism  should  ulti- 
mately prove  the  existence  of  such  a  state,  the  conclusions 
we  are  about  to  draw  from  their  experiments  will  show 
whether  such  proofs  have  any  value  or  not. 

"2nd  Conclusion. — According  to  the  terms  of  the 
programme,  the  second  experiment  is  intended  to  estab- 
lish that  the  subjects  are  insensible  to  pain. 

"  We  must,  however,  recall  the  restrictions  imposed 
on  your  commissioners.  The  face  was  not  to  be  subjected 
to  such  experiments,  nor  yet  those  parts  of  the  body 
which  are  usually  covered,  so  that  they  could  only 
be  performed  on  the  hands  and  the  neck.  These  parts 
were  not  to  be  pinched  nor  twitched,  nor  placed  in 
contact  with  any  burning  substance,  nor  exposed  to 
any  high  temperature ;  the  only  thing  permitted  was  to 
insert  the  points  of  needles  to  the  depth  of  half  a  line, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  face  was  half  covered  by  a 
bandage  which  did  not  allow  us  to  observe  the  expression 
of  the  countenance,  when  the  attempt  was  made  to  inflict 
pain.  When  we  recall  all  these  restrictions,  we  deduce 
from  them  the  following  facts: — (1)  that  the  sensations  of 
pain  we  were  permitted  to  excite  were  extremely  slight 
and  of  limited  extent;  (2)  that  they  could  only  be  excited 
on  a  small  portion  of  the  body,  which  was  perhaps  accus- 
tomed to  receive  such  impressions;  (3)  that  since  these 
impressions  were  always  of  the  same  kind,  they  were 
of  the  nature  of  tattooing ;  (4)  that  the  face,  and  particu- 
larly the  eyes,  in  which  the  expression  of  pain  is  most 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM.  45 

apparent,  were  concealed  from  the  commissioners;  (5) 
that  under  these  circumstances,  impassibility,  however 
absolute  and  complete,  could  not  be  accepted  by  us  as 
a  conclusive  proof  that  the  subject  in  question  was 
devoid  of  sensibility. 

"  Srd  Conclusion. — The  magnetizer  undertook  to  prove 
to  the  commissioners  that,  by  the  mere  exercise  of  the 
will,  he  had  the  power  of  making  his  subject  either 
locally  or  generally  sensible  to  pain,  which  he  terms  the 
restitution  of  sensibility. 

"  As,  however,  he  had  been  unable  to  give  us  any  ex- 
perimental proof  that  he  had  taken  away  and  destroyed 
this  girl's  sensibility,  this  experiment  was  correlative 
with  the  other,  and  it  was  consequently  imj^ossible  to 
prove  such  a  restitution ;  moreover,  the  facts  observed 
by  us  showed  that  all  the  attempts  made  in  this  direction 
had  completely  failed.  You  must  remember,  gentlemen, 
that  the  only  verification  consisted  in  the  somnambulist's 
assertions.  When,  for  instance,  she  assured  the  com- 
missioners that  she  was  unable  to  move  her  left  leof,  this 
was  no  proof  that  the  limb  was  magnetically  paralyzed ; 
even  in  this  case  her  words  were  not  in  accordance  with 
her  magnetizer's  pretensions,  so  that  we  only  obtain 
assertions  without  proof,  opposed  to  other  assertions, 
equally  without  proof. 

"4th  Conclusion. — What  we  have  just  said  with 
reference  to  the  abolition  and  restitution  of  sensibility, 
is  applicable  in  every  respect  to  the  so-called  abolition 
and  restitution  of  the  power  of  movement,  of  which  your 
commissioners  did  not  obtain  the  slightest  proof 

"  oth  Conclusion. — One  paragraph  of  the  programme 
is  entitled,  '  Obedience  to  the  mental  order  to  cease,  in 


46  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

the  midst  of  a  conversation,  to  reply  verbally  and  by 
signs  to  a  given  person/ 

"In  the  seance  of  March  5,  the  magnetizer  attempted 
to  prove  to  the  commissioners  that  the  power  of  his  will 
went  so  far  as  to  produce  this  effect :  but  it  resulted  from 
the  facts  which  occurred  during  this  seance  that,  on  the 
contrary,  the  somnambulist  was  still  unable  to  hear  when 
the  experimenter  no  longer  wished  to  prevent  her  from 
hearing,  and  that  she  appeared  to  possess  the  power  of 
hearing  when  he  distinctly  desired  her  to  hear  nothing. 
So  that,  according  to  the  somnambulist's  assertions,  the 
faculty  of  hearing,  or  of  ceasing  to  hear,  was  in  this 
instance  in  absolute  revolt  against  the  will  of  the  mag- 
netizer. 

"But  well-considered  facts  lead  the  commissioners 
to  the  conclusion  that  there  was  neither  a  revolt  nor  a" 
submission  of  the  will ;  only  an  absolute  independence. 

"  &h  Conclusion. — Transposition  of  the  sense  of  sight. 
— The  magnetizer,  as  you  are  aware,  complied  with  the 
commissioners*  request  in  turning  from  the  study  of  the 
abolition  and  restitution  of  sensibility  and  the  power  of 
movement,  in  order  to  consider  more  important  facts; 
namely,  the  facts  of  vision  without  the  aid  of  the  eyes. 
All  the  incidents  in  connection  with  these  facts  have 
been  shown  to  you ;  they  occurred  in  the  seance  of  April 
3, 1837. 

"Berna  undertook  to  show  the  commissioners  that 
a  woman,  influenced  by  his  magnetic  manipulations, 
could  decipher  words,  distinguish  playing  cards,  and 
follow  the  hands  of  a  watch,  not  by  means  of  her  eyes, 
but  by  her  occiput — a  fact  which  would  imply  either 
the  transposition  or  the  inutility  of  the  organs  of  sight 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  47 

during  the  magnetic  state.  These  experiments  were 
made,  and,  as  you  are  aware,  were  a  complete  failure. 

*'A11  which  the  somnambulist  knew,  all  which  she 
was  able  to  infer  from  what  was  said  in  her  immediate 
vicinity,  all  which  she  could  naturally  surmise,  she 
uttered  with  bandaged  eyes ;  from  which  we  at  once 
concluded  that  she  was  not  without  ingenuity.  Thus, 
when  the  magnetizer  invited  one  of  the  commissioners 
to  write  a  word  on  a  card,  and  to  present  it  to  the 
woman's  occiput,  she  said  that  she  saw  a  card,  and  even 
the  writing  on  the  card.  If  she  was  asked  how  many 
persons  were  present,  she  could,  since  she  had  seen  them 
enter,  approximately  declare  their  number.  If  she  was 
asked  whether  she  saw  a  commissioner  sitting  near  her, 
engaged  in  writing  with  a  scratching  pen,  she  raised  her 
head,  tried  to  see  under  the  bandage,  and  said  that  this 
gentleman  held  something  white  in  his  hand.  When 
asked  whether  she  saw  the  mouth  of  the  same  indi- 
vidual, who  had  left  off  writing  and  placed  himself 
behind  her,  she  said  that  he  had  something  white  in  his 
mouth.  Hence  we  concluded  that  this  somnambulist, 
more  experienced  and  adroit  than  the  former  one,  was 
able  to  make  more  plausible  surmises. 

"  But  wdth  respect  to  facts  really  adapted  to  establish 
vision  by  means  of  the  occiput,  decisive,  absolute,  and 
peremptory  facts,  they  were  not  only  altogether  absent, 
but  those  which  we  observed  were  of  a  nature  to  give 
rise  to  strange  suspicions  as  to  this  woman's  honesty,  as 
we  shall  presently  observe. 

"7th  Conclusion.  —  Clairvoyance. — When  the  mag- 
netizer despaired  of  proving  to  the  commissioners  the 
transposition  of  the  sense  of  sight,  the  nullity  and  super- 


48  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

fluity  of  the  eyes  during  the  magnetic  state,  he  sought 
to  take  refuge  in  the  fact  of  clairvoyance,  or  of  vision 
through  opaque  bodies. 

"  You  are  acquainted  with  the  experiments  made  on 
this  subject.  The  main  conclusion  deduced  from  these 
facts  was  that  a  man,  placed  before  a  woman  in  a  given 
attitude,  is  unable  to  give  her  the  power  of  distinguish- 
ing the  objects  presented  to  her  when  her  eyes  are 
bandaged. 

"Here  your  commissioners  were  occupied  with  a 
more  serious  reflection.  Admitting  for  a  moment  an 
hypothesis  which  is  very  convenient  for  magnetizers, 
that  in  many  cases  somnambulists  lose  all  lucidity,  and 
are  as  unable  as  ordinary  mortals  to  see  by  means  of 
the  occiput,  of  the  stomach,  or  through  a  bandage,  what 
are  we  to  conclude  with  respect  to  the  woman  who  gave 
minute  description  of  objects  quite  different  from  those 
presented  to  her  ?  We  are  at  a  loss  what  to  think  of  a 
somnambulist  who  described  the  knave  of  clubs  on  a 
blank  card,  who  transformed  the  ticket  of  an  academician 
into  a  gold  watch  with  a  white  dial-plate  inscribed  with 
black  figures,  and  who,  if  she  had  been  pressed,  would 
perhaps  have  gone  on  to  tell  us  the  hour  marked  by 
this  watch.  .  .  . 

"If,  gentlemen,  you  now  ask  what  is  the  ultimate 
and  general  conclusion  to  be  inferred  from  all  these 
experiments,  made  in  our  presence,  we  declare  that  M. 
Bema  undoubtedly  deceived  himself  when,  on  February 
12  of  this  year,  he  wrote  to  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Medicine  that  he  could  boast  of  affording  us  the  personal 
experience  of  which  we  were  in  need  (these  are  his 
words) ;  when  he  offered  to  show  to  your  delegates  con- 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  49 

dusive  facts ;  when  he  affirmed  that  these  facts  were  of 
a  nature  to  throw  light  upon  physiology  and  upon  thera- 
peutics. You  have  now  been  acquainted  with  these 
facts;  you  agree  with  us  that  they  are  by  no  means 
conclusive  as  to  the  doctrine  of  animal  magnetism,  and 
that  they  have  nothing  in  common  either  with  physi- 
ology or  with  therapeutics. 

"We  do  not  attempt  to  decide  whether  the  more 
numerous  and  varied  facts  supplied  by  other  magnetizers 
would  lead  to  a  different  conclusion,  but  it  is  certain 
that  if  other  magnetizers  exist,  they  do  not  openly 
appear,  and  they  have  not  ventured  to  challenge  the 
sanction  or  reprobation  of  the  Academy. 

"  (Signed)  M.  M.  Eoux  (President),  Bouillaud, 
H.  Oloquet,  I^mery,*  Pelletier, 
Caventou,  Corn  at,  Oudet,  Du- 
bois (Reporter). 

«  Paris,  July  17,  1837." 

When  this  report,  taking  such  a  decided  part 
against  animal  magnetism,  was  read,  Husson  felt  him- 
self to  be  directly  attacked,  and  replied.  The  Academy, 
however,  accepted  the  conclusions  of  the  report  by  an 
immense  majority.  In  our  opinion  this  report  did  not 
prove  much,  since  general  conclusions  could  not  be 
drawn  from  the  negative  experiments  performed  on  only 
two  somnambulists. 

In  order  to  settle  the  question  of  animal  magnetism, 
the  younger  Burdin,  a  member  of  the  Academy,  proposed 
to  award  from  his  private  fortune  a  prize  of  3,000  francs 
to  any  person  who  could  read  a  given  writing  without 
the  aid  of  his  eyes,  and  in  the  dark.  The  Academy 
accepted   the   proposal.     In   this  way  the  field  of   ex- 


50  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

periment  was  restricted,  and  it  seemed  that  by  limiting 
the  point  at  issue,  it  was  rendered  more  decisive.  This 
was  a  defiance  hurled  by  the  Academy  at  the  mag- 
netizers,  and  at  the  first  glance  it  might  appear  that 
Burdin  went  straight  to  the  heart  of  the  question.  He, 
speaking  for  the  Academy,  seemed  to  say,  "  If  there  is 
a  single  somnambulist  capable  of  reading  without  using 
his  eyes,  we  will  admit  the  existence  of  animal  magnet- 
ism, and  go  into  the  question.  If  no  somnambulist  can 
stand  the  test,  animal  magnetism  has  no  existence."  But 
as  Richer  has  observed,  the  dilemma  is  false.  Somnam- 
bulists might  easily  be  admitted  to  be  incapable  of 
reading  without  using  their  eyes,  and  yet  be  genuine 
somnambulists.  In  fact,  the  Academy  demanded  that  a 
miracle  should  be  wrought  before  they  would  believe  in 
animal  magnetism. 

At  this  time  Pigeaire,  a  Montpellier  doctor,  had  a 
daughter,  ten  or  eleven  years  of  age,  who,  in  a  state  of 
somnambulism,  did  many  wonderful  things,  and  especially 
could  read  writing  when  her  eyes  were  covered  by  a 
bandage  of  black  silk.  This  was  attested  by  Lordat,  the 
Professor  of  Physiology  at  Montpellier.  Pigeaire  brought 
his  daughter  to  Paris,  in  hopes  of  gaining  the  Burdin . 
prize.  He  began  with  giving  private  seances,  which 
were  completely  successful;  and,  indeed,  the  private 
stance  generally  succeeds.  A  very  favourable  report, 
signed  by  Bousquet,  Orfila,  Ribes,  Reveille-Parise,  etc., 
is  still  extant.  But  the  scene  changed  when  it  was 
necessary  to  appear  before  the  commission  nominated 
by  the  Academy.  The  commissioners  suspected  that  the 
bandage  used  by  Pigeaire  did  not  serve  as  a  complete 
obstacle  to  the  normal  vision.     In  fact,  there  is  nothing 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  51 

apparently  so  simple,  and  in  reality  so  diflficult,  as  to 
find  a  bandage  which  is  absolutely  opaque;  any  one 
may  see  perfectly  through  an  extremely  minute  hole, 
such  as  may,  for  instance,  be  perforated  in  a  card,  and 
especially  if  there  are  more  holes  than  one,  placed  at 
intervals  of  one  or  two  millimetres  from  each  other.  If 
our  readers  wish  for  further  information  on  this  interest- 
ing question,  we  must  refer  them  to  D^chambre's  article 
on  Mesmerism  (Dictionnaire  encyclopedique  des  Sciences 
medicales)*  Dechambre  took  the  pains  to  try  for  him- 
self the  arrangements  made  by  magnetizers  for  covering 
the  eyes  of  their  somnambulists ;  and  he  was  satisfied  that 
none  of  these  arrangements,  although  apparently  very 
complex,  would  after  a  while  prevent  them  from  reading 
the  writing  placed  under  their  eyes.  We  may  add  that 
errors  become  more  probable  from  the  excessive  keenness 
of  sight  common  in  somnambulists,  from  the  time  which 
elapses  before  the  reading  begins,  and  from  the  contor- 
tions by  which  the  subject  tries  to  displace  or  loosen  the 
bandage.  The  Academicians  were,  therefore,  justified  in 
rejecting  the  bandage  used  by  Pigeaire.  They  suggested 
a  mask  or  headpiece  of  black  silk,  very  light  and 
stretched  on  two  iron  wires,  so  that  it  might  be  held  at 
the  distance  of  six  inches  from  the  girl's  face,  so  as  not 
to  interfere  with  her  breathing,  nor  with  her  freedom  of 
action.  Pigeaire,  on  his  side,  objected  to  this,  and  they 
were  unable  to  come  to  an  agreement,  in  spite  of  the 
concessions  made  by  the  commissioners,  so  that  the 
experiments  did  not  take  place.    In  fact,  Pigeaire's  stipu- 

♦  Gerdy's  paper  on  the  same  subject  may  also  be  read  with  interest : 
Histoire  acadd'mique  du  magnetisme  animal,  ;par  Burdin  jeune  et  Duhoh 
d' Amiens,  p.  605. 


52  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

lations  would,  as  it  was  said  at  the  time,  have  degraded 
the  experiment  into  a  mere  game  of  blind-man's-buff. 

Pigeaire  was  succeeded  by  another  magnetizer.  Teste, 
who  presented  himself  before  the  Academy :  he  boasted 
of  the  possession  of  a  somnambulist  who  could  read 
writing  which  was  enclosed  in  a  box.  This  experiment 
was  easily  performed,  and  the  magnetizer  and  the 
commissioners  soon  agreed  upon  the  conditions.  But 
the  failure  was  complete,  since  the  subject  was  unable  to 
divine  a  single  word  of  the  writing. 

The  Burdin  prize  was  not  awarded. 

In  conclusion,  Double  proposed  that  the  Academy 
should  henceforward  refuse  to  pay  any  attention  to  the 
proposals  of  magnetizers,  and  that  animal  magnetism 
should  be  treated  as  the  Academy  of  Sciences  treats  the 
propositions  which  refer  to  perpetual  motion,  or  to  the 
squaring  of  the  circle. 

Such  was  the  result  of  so  many  efforts,  of  such 
patient  research,  of  so  many  discussions  and  reports  :  an 
absolute  and  complete  negation  of  the  existence  of 
animal  magnetism. 

This  failure  of  the  long  labours  of  the  Academy  of 
Medicine  was,  as  we  have  already  said,  primarily  the 
fault  of  the  magnetizers.  Instead  of  contenting  them- 
selves with  the  study  of  the  simplest  and  most  ordinary 
phenomena,  they  were  bent  on  establishing  the  exist- 
ence of  complex  psychical  phenomena,  such  as  vision  by 
means  of  the  occiput,  or  an  acquaintance  with  future 
events.  The  Academy  was  also  mistaken  in  being 
seduced  by  them  into  this  research  into  the  marvellous. 
It  may  be  said  that  at  the  outset  of  the  Academic 
history  of  animal  magnetism,  the  problem  was  wrongly 


HISTOKY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  63 

stated.  It  seems  to  us  that  the  Academy  ought  to  have 
clearly  stated  a  question  which  the  magnetizers  were 
allowed  to  obscure ;  it  should  have  been  seen  that  anions: 
the  phenomena  proclaimed  by  the  magnetizers,  there 
might  be  some  which  were  connected  with  known 
physical  laws,  and  which  might  become  the  object  of 
serious  and  fruitful  study. 

At  any  rate,  the  Academy  ought  not  to  have  accepted 
Double's  trenchant  proposition,  declaring  that  the  ques- 
tion as  to  animal  magnetism  was  definitively  closed,  as 
if  no  new  facts  might  subsequently  arise  to  compel  the 
Academy  to  reverse  its  summary  judgment.  These  new 
facts  consist,  as  we  are  aware,  in  hypnotism,  formerly 
regarded  as  an  illusion,  and  now  accepted  as  a  truth  of 
which  no  one  can  doubt  the  reality. 

In  fact,  the  history  of  animal  magnetism  is  of  all 
histories  the  most  instructive  and  philosophic :  we  must 
be  indeed  incorrigible  if  it  does  not  disgust  us  with 
Ob  priori  negations. 

It  was  a  matter  of  course  that  after  the  Academy 
had  pronounced  its  sentence,  somnambulists  continued 
to  see  through  opaque  bodies,  to  predict  future  events, 
and  to  prescribe  remedies,  just  as  if  the  Academy  had 
not  spoken  at  all.  Du  Potet,  the  celebrated  inventor  of 
the  magic  mirror,  was  at  this  period  the  chief  representa- 
tive of  magnetic  science.  This  famous  mirror,  which 
had  the  effect  of  throwing  people  into  convulsions,  was 
made  as  follows : —  The  performer  of  the  experiment 
described  a  circle  on  the  parquet  with  a  piece  of  charcoal, 
taking  care  to  blacken  the  whole  circle,  and  he  then 
withdrew  to  a  distance.  The  subject  approached  the 
magic  circle,  regarded  it  at  first  with  confidence,  raised 


54  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

his  head  to  look  at  the  assembly,  and  again  looked  down 
to  his  feet.  "Then,"  says  Du  Potet,  "the  first  efiect 
might  be  observed.  The  subject  drooped  his  head  still 
lower  with  an  unquiet  movement  of  his  whole  person, 
and  he  revolved  round  the  circle  without  losinof  siojht  of 
it  for  an  instant ;  again  he  stooped  lower,  drew  himself 
up,  retreated  a  few  paces,  advanced  anew,  frowned, 
became  gloomy,  and  breathed  hard.  The  most  singular 
and  curious  spectacle  followed  ;  the  subject  undoubtedly 
beheld  images  reflected  in  the  mirror ;  his  agitation  and 
extraordinary  gestures,  his  sobs  and  tears,  his  anger, 
despair,  and  fury — everything,  in  short,  revealed  the 
trouble  and  emotion  of  his  mind.  It  was  no  dream  nor 
nightmare;  the  apparitions  were  actually  present.  A 
series  of  events  was  unrolled  before  him,  represented  by 
signs  and  figures  which  he  could  understand  and  gloat 
over,  sometimes  joyful,  sometimes  gloomy,  just  as  these 
representations  of  the  future  passed  before  his  eyes.  Very 
soon  he  was  overcome  by  delirium,  he  vrished  to  seize 
the  image,  and  darted  a  ferocious  glance  towards  it ;  he 
finally  started  forward  to  trample  on  the  charcoal  circle, 
the  dust  from  it  arose,  and  the  operator  approached  to 
put  an  end  to  a  drama  so  full  of  emotion  and  of  terror." 
Du  Potet,  a  sincere  enthusiast,  incapable  of  any 
scientific  research,  explained  the  effects  of  his  mirror  b}^ 
the  intervention  of  magic.  Gigot-Suard  subsequently 
performed  similar  experiments  on  hypnotized  subjects. 
This  was  at  the  time  when  table-turning,  spirit-rapping, 
Home's  apparitions,  and  other  eccentricities  of  spiritual- 
ism were  carried  on.  Lacordaire,  in  a  sermon  preached  at 
Notre  Dame  in  IS^G,  gave  his  adhesion  to  magnetism, 
which  he  regarded  as  the  last  flash  of  the  old  power, 


HISTORY  OF  AMIMAL  MAGNETISM.  55 

destined  to  confound  human  reason,  and  abase  it  before 
God ;  it  was  a  phenomenon  of  the  prophetic  order.*  He 
went  on  to  say,  "Thrown  into  an  artificial  sleep,  man 
can  see  through  opaque  bodies,  he  indicates  healing 
remedies,  and  appears  to  know  things  of  which  he  was 
previously  ignorant."  Other  members  of  the  clergy 
went  further,  and  practised  magnetism  with  the  avowed 
object  of  obtaining  revelations  from  on  high.  The  Court 
of  Rome  intervened  on  several  occasions,  and  in  1856  an 
encyclical  letter  from  the  Holy  Roman  Inquisition  was 
sent  to  all  bishops  to  oppose  the  abuses  of  magnetism. 
The  following  is  a  translation  of  the  Latin  text : — f 

"July  30,  1856 

"  At  the  general  assembly  of  the  Holy  Roman  Inqui- 
sition, held  at  the  convent  of  Santa  Maria  Minerva, 
the  cardinals  and  inquisitors-general  against  heresy 
throughout  the  Christian  world,  after  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  all  which  has  been  reported  to  them  by  trust- 
worthy men,  touching  the  practice  of  magnetism,  have 
resolved  to  address  the  present  encyclical  letter  to  all 
bishops,  in  order  that  its  abuses  may  be  repressed. 

"  For  it  is  clearly  established  that  a  new  species  of 

superstition  has  arisen  respecting  magnetic  phenomena, 

with  which  many  persons  are  now  concerned,  not  with 

the  legitimate  object  of  throwing  light  on  the  physical 

sciences,  but  in  order  to  mislead  men,  under  the  belief 

that  things  hidden,  remote,  or  still  in  the  future  may  be 

brought  to  light  through  magnetism,  and  especially  by 

the  intervention  of  certain  women  who  are  completely 

under  the  magnetizer's  control. 

*  (Euvres  de  Lacordaire,  vol.  iii.  p.  246.   Paris,  1861. 
t  Quoted  by  Mabru,  Les  Magn^tiseurs,    Paris,  1858. 


56  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

"  The  Holy  See,  when  consulted  in  special  cases,  has 
repeatedly  replied  by  condemning  as  unlawful  all  ex- 
periments made  to  obtain  a  result  which  is  foreign  to 
the  natural  order  and  rules  of  morality,  and  which  does 
not  make  use  of  lawful  means.  It  was  in  such  cases 
that  it  was  decided,  on  the  21st  of  April,  1841,  that 
magnetism  as  set  forth  in  this  petition  is  not  permitted! 
So  likewise  the  holy  congregation  thought  fit  to  forbid 
the  use  of  certain  books  which  systematically  diffuse 
error  on  this  subject.  But  since,  exclusive  of  special 
cases,  it  became  necessary  to  pronounce  on  the  practice  of 
magnetism  in  general,  the  following  rule  was  established 
on  July  18,  1847: — 'For  the  avoiding  of  error,  of  all 
sorcery,  and  of  all  invocation  of  evil  spirits,  whether 
implicit  or  explicit,  the  use  of  magnetism — that  is,  the 
simple  act  of  employing  physical  means,  not  otherwise 
prohibited — is  not  morally  unlawful,  so  long  as  it  is  for 
no  illicit  or  evil  object.  With  respect  to  the  application 
of  purely  physical  principles  and  means  to  things  or 
results  which  are  in  reality  supernatural,  so  as  to  give 
them  a  physical  explanation,  this  is  an  illusion,  and  an 
heretical  practice  worthy  of  condemnation.* 

"Although  this  decree  sufficiently  explains  what  is 
lawful  or  unlawful  in  the  use  or  abuse  of  magnetism, 
human  perversity  is  such  that  men  who  have  devoted 
themselves  to  the  discovery  of  whatever  ministers  to 
curiosity,  greatly  to  the  detriment  of  the  salvation  of 
souls,  and  even  to  that  of  civil  society,  boast  that  they 
have  found  the  means  of  predicting  and  divining. 
Hence  it  follows  that  weak-minded  women,  thrown  by 
gestures  which  are  not  always  modest  into  a  state  of 
somnambulism,  and  of  what  is  called  clairvoyance,  pro- 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  57 

fess  to  see  those  things  which  are  invisible,  and  claim 
with  rash  audacity  the  power  of  speaking  on  religious 
matters,  of  calling  up  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  of  receiving 
answers  to  their  inquiries,  and  of  discovering  what  is 
unknown  or  remote.  They  practise  other  superstitions 
of  like  nature,  in  order  by  this  gift  of  divination  to 
procure  considerable  gains  for  themselves  and  their 
masters.  Whatever  be  the  arts  or  illusions  employed 
in  these  acts,  since  physical  means  are  used  to  obtain 
unnatural  results,  the  imposture  is  worthy  of  condem- 
nation, since  it  is  heretical  and  a  scandal  against  the 
purity  of  morals.  In  order,  therefore,  effectually  to  re- 
press so  great  an  evil,  which  is  most  fatal  to  religion 
and  to  civil  society,  the  pastoral  care,  vigilance,  and 
zeal  of  all  the  bishops  cannot  be  too  earnestly  invoked. 
Aided  by  divine  grace,  the  ordinary  of  each  diocese  must 
do  all  in  his  power,  both  by  the  admonitions  of  paternal 
love,  by  severe  reproaches,  and,  finally,  by  legal  means, 
using  these  according  to  his  judgment  before  the  Lord, 
and  taking  account  of  the  circumstances  of  place,  of  time, 
and  persons ; — he  must  do  his  utmost  to  avert  the  abuses 
of  magnetism,  and  to  bring  it  to  an  end,  so  that  the 
Lord's  flock  may  be  preserved  from  the  attacks  of  the 
enemy,  that  the  faith  may  be  maintained  in  its  integrity, 
and  that  the  faithful  committed  to  their  care  may  be 
saved  from  the  corruption  of  morals. 

"  Given  at  Rome,  at  the  Chancery  of  the  Sacred  Office 
of  the  Vatican. 

"Y.  Card.  Macchi. 

"August  4,  185G." 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  document  that  the  Court 
of  Rome  appealed  to  a  singular  motive  in  their  condem- 


58  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

nation  of  magnetism.  "  With  respect  to  the  application 
of  purely  physical  principles  and  means  to  things  or 
results  which  are  in  reality  supernatural,  so  as  to  give 
them  a  physical  explanation,  this  is  an  illusion,  and 
an  heretical  practice  worthy  of  condemnation."  The 
encyclical  letter  goes  on  to  define  this  idea,  and  speaks  of 
"weak-minded  women  .  .  .  who  profess  to  see  those 
things  which  are  invisible,  and  claim  with  rash  audacity 
the  power  of  speaking  on  religious  matters,  of  calling  up 
the  spirits  of  the  dead,  of  receiving  answers  to  their 
inquiries,  and  of  discovering  what  is  unknown  or  re- 
mote." It  would  be  impossible  to  declare  more  plainly 
that  the  Holy  See  proposes  to  maintain  a  monopoly  of 
the  supernatural. 

Condemned  by  the  Court  of  Rome,  as  it  had  been 
condemned  by  the  Academy  of  Medicine,  animal  mag- 
netism did  not  perish,  but  took  refuge  in  the  popular 
imagination.  To  this  day  we  possess  clairvoyant,  and 
even  excessively  clairvoyant  somnambulists  who  find  the 
trade  profitable.  They  are  to  be  found  in  the  drawing- 
rooms  of  private  houses,  as  well  as  at  public  fairs.  It 
is  certain  that  animal  magnetism  will  not  perish,  since 
it  is  one  of  the  thousand  forms  assumed  by  that  belief 
in  the  marvellous  which  is  eternal. 

As  we  here  conclude  the  history  of  the  wonders  of 
animal  magnetism,  which  must  give  place  to  the  positive 
facts  of  hypnotism,  we  ought  to  say  that  it  would  be  an 
error  to  suppose  that  all  the  phenomena  of  this  species 
of  legend  are  absolutely  false.  There  are  degrees  in  the 
marvellous.  The  transmission  of  thought,  or  mental 
suggestion,  which  constitutes  the  first  stage  in  this 
domain,  has  been  recently  the  subject  of  an  article  by 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  69 

Ch.  Richet,  in  the  R^vue  FMlosophique  of  December, 
188-i.  He  has  attempted  to  show  "the  influence  exerted 
in  a  definite  direction  by  the  thought  of  one  individual 
on  another  in  his  vicinity,  without  any  external  phe- 
nomenon, appreciable  by  the  senses."  Although  these 
phenomena  are  not  logically  connected  with  hypnotism, 
since  they  could  be  produced  in  Richet's  friends  when  they 
were  in  normal  health,  awake,  and  in  no  sense  hypnotized, 
yet  it  is  true  that  public  opinion  has  confounded  together, 
under  the  name  of  animal  magnetism,  the  nervous  dis- 
turbance termed  hypnotism,  somnambulism,  etc.,  and  the 
phenomena  which  appear  to  be  supernatural,  such  as  the 
communication  of  thought,  vision  through  an  opaque 
body,  prevision  of  the  future,  etc.  For  this  reason  we 
propose  to  say  a  few  words  on  mental  suggestion. 

The  facts  in  question  are  not  absolutely  new.  Richet 
observes  that  we  may  perhaps  trace  the  first  accounts 
of  mental  suggestion  to  the  well-known  case  of  possession 
at  Loudun.  According  to  the  story,  Gaston  d'Orleans 
found  the  Ursuline  nuns  agitated  by  frightful  demoniac 
attacks,  and  he  declared  that  they  obeyed  orders  trans- 
mitted mentally.  This  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  chief 
signs  of  demoniac  possession.  De  Puys^gur  also  men- 
tions facts  of  mental  suggestion.  In  the  course  of  this 
century,  many  magnetizers  have  asserted  that  they 
could  transmit  their  thoughts  to  somnambulist  subjects ; 
but  they  have  been  unable  to  prove  this  faculty  to 
the  satisfaction  of  learned  bodies,  which  throws  some 
doubt  on  their  sincerity,  or  at  any  rate  leads  to  the 
supposition  that  they  unconsciously  placed  themselves 
en  rapport  with  the  subject  by  some  external  sign.  It 
is   now    known   that   the    slightest   contact   sufiices   to 


60  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

establish  a  communication  between  the  one  who  divines 
and  the  one  who  suggests.  Cumberland's  recent  experi- 
ments must  not  be  forgotten,  of  which  the  wonderful 
results  were  shown  to  be  explicable  by  very  simple 
causes.  Cumberland  held  the  hand  of  an  individual 
who  had  hidden,  or  who  was  thinking  of,  some  particular 
object,  and,  with  his  eyes  bound,  went  directly  towards 
the  object  in  question.  Eichet  has  ascertained  that 
when  the  experiment  succeeds,  the  subject,  who  is 
generally  impressionable,  unwittingly  and  involuntarily 
makes  slight  movements  with  his  hand.  This  involun- 
tary action  betrays  his  thought,  and  puts  the  seeker 
on  the  right  track  in  a  way  which  no  one  who  has  not 
tried  the  experiment  for  himself  would  suspect.*  Gley 
has  thrown  further  light  on  Cumberland's  method  by 
his  tracing  of  the  muscular  movements  which  explain 
the  so-called  thought-reading.  The  tracings  clearly 
show  that  throughout  the  experiment  there  occurs  in 
the  subject's  hand  fibrillary  contractions,  slight  move- 
ments of  pressure,  and  in  some  cases  a  traction  movement 
of  the  hand  and  whole  arm.  These  movements  increase 
in  intensity  when  the  object  is  approached,  and  when 
it  is  reached  they  suddenly  cease.f  Positive  results  were 
obtained  from  sixteen  out  of  twenty-five  persons. 

We  now  come  to  Richet's  experiments,  and  to  the 
three  orders  of  proof  by  which  he  sought  to  demonstrate 
mental  suggestion. 

1.  In  naming  at  a  venture  a  card  taken  from  a  pack 

*  Ch.  Kichet,  A  propos  de  la  suggestion  mentale  (^Soclel^  de  Biologie, 
May,  1884.) 

t  Gley,  Stir  les  mouvements  musculaires  inconscients  en  rapport  avec 
le»  images  {Society  de  Biologie,  July,  1884). 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  61 

of  playing-cards,  or  a  picture  from  picture-cards,  the 
repetition  of  the  experiment  for  a  given  number  of  times 
will  show  an  average  more  or  less  in  agreement  with  the 
calculus  of  probabilities.  For  instance,  in  a  hand  con- 
taining six  cards,  the  probability  of  guessing  aright  is 
one-sixth  ;  that  is,  one  time  in  six. 

This  is  not  the  case  when  the  card  taken  at  random 
has  been  seen  by  another  person ;  the  average,  varying 
with  the  sensitiveness  of  the  subject,  is  then  somewhat 
higher  than  that  which  would  have  been  afforded  by 
the  calculus  of  probabilities.  In  218  experiments,  it 
would  be  67  instead  of  42. 

2.  With  the  aid  of  a  rod  which  reveals  the  un- 
conscious action  of  the  diviner's  muscles,  the  average  is 
still  higher  than  that  indicated  by  the  calculus  of  pro- 
babilities. The  probable  number  in  98  experiments 
would  be  18 ;  the  actual  number  was  44. 

3.  If  the  subject  be  placed  in  what  are  call  spiritist 
conditions,  which  only  serve  to  reveal  the  slight,  un- 
conscious movements  of  a  sensitive  person,  the  average 
obtained  is  very  much  higher  than  that  of  the  calculus 
of  probabilities. 

The  author  considers  that  these  latter  experiments 
prove  more  than  all  the  others.  Three  persons  are  seated 
at  a  table,  engaged  in  conversation;  the  middle  one, 
termed  the  medium,  unconsciously  moves  the  table,  and 
this  movement,  by  means  of  a  simple  arrangement,  causes 
an  electric  bell  to  ring.  Two  other  persons  are  seated 
at  a  second  table,  placed  behind  the  former  one,  and 
concealed  from  the  other  three  persons:  one  silently 
runs  through  the  alphabet  with  a  pencil;  the  other 
notes  on  which  letter  the  pencil  rests  when  the  bell 
4 


62  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

rings.  Finally,  there  is  a  sixth  person  in  the  room,  who 
has  thought  of  a  given  word.  On  consulting  the  letters 
dictated  by  the  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a 
singular  correspondence  between  these  letters  and  the 
word  thought  of  by  the  sixth  person,  who  is  neither 
seated  at  the  spiritist  table  nor  before  the  alphabet. 
We  give,  instances — 


Words  thought  of. 

Words  dictated  by  table. 

1.  Jean  Racine. 

1.  Igard. 

2.  Legros. 

2.  Neghn. 

3.  Esther. 

8.  Foqdem. 

4.  Henrietta. 

4.  Higiegmsd. 

5.  Cheuvreux. 

5.  Dievoreq. 

6.  Doremond. 

6.  Epjerod. 

7.  Chevalon. 

7.  Cheval. 

8.  Allouand. 

8.  Iko. 

On  a  first  inspection  our  readers  will  doubtless  find 
these  results  very  unsatisfactory.  Richet  has,  however, 
deduced  some  curious  results  from  them,  after  submitting 
them  to  mathematical  analysis.  Thus,  in  experiment  three, 
where  the  word  Esther  was  thought  of,  and  the  medium 
replied  through  the  table  Foqdem,  the  exactly  corre- 
sponding number  of  letters  counts  as  ^  in  the  calculation 
of  chances,  since  the  alphabet  consists  of  twenty-four 
letters,  and  the  word  of  six  letters,  so  that  it  represents 
six  attempts  to  guess  right.  The  actual  number  is, 
however,  much  higher  than  the  probable  number ;  it  is 
one  out  of  six,  namely— the  letter  e,  which  is  in  its  right 
place.  On  applying  this  analysis  to  all  the  other  cases 
cited,  Richet  finds  that  the  total  probable  number  is 
equal  to  ^^J  =  2,  a  calculation  our  readers  may  make  for 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  63 

themselves.  The  actual  number  obtained  was  fourteen, 
which  is  very  high. 

E-ichet  comes  to  the  definitive  conclusion  that  the  pro- 
bability in  favour  of  mental  suggestion  may  be  estimated 
at  two-thirds.  He,  therefore,  admits  it  to  be  probable 
that  intellectual  force  is  projected  from  the  brain  and 
echoed  in  the  thought  of  another  individual.  He  likewise 
admits  that  this  re-echo  acts  chiefly  on  the  unconscious 
intelligence  of  the  individual  who  perceives  and  of  the 
individual  who  transmits.  This  accounts  for  the  success 
obtained  with  the  spiritist  table.  Under  these  condi- 
tions the  thought  of  the  transmitting  individual  acts  on 
the  unconscious  thought  of  the  medium:  the  latter  is 
endowed  with  a  faculty  of  semi-somnambulism,  in  which 
one  portion  of  the  brain  effects  certain  operations  without 
giving  notice  to  the  ego.  Finally,  it  should  be  said  that 
this  transmission  of  thought  occurs  in  a  degree  which 
varies  with  the  individual,  since  some  are  much  more 
sensitive  than  others. 

While  we  heartily  applaud  the  step  taken  by  Richet, 
who  has  had  the  courage  to  declare  at  his  own  risk  what 
he  believes  to  be  the  truth,  we  cannot  accept  his  theory 
without  reserve.  It  will  generally  be  found  that  the 
facts  prove  less  than  he  asserts,  and  that  his  inter- 
pretation of  them  is  too  favourable.  One  main  objection 
consists  in  the  fact  that  the  calculation  of  chances  is  not 
adapted  to  decide  questions  of  this  nature :  the  mental 
transmission  of  thought  is  one  of  the  phenomena  which 
can  only  be  accepted  when  demonstrated  by  proofs 
which  should  be  strong  in  proportion  as  they  are  remote 
from  established  knowledge.  The  calculation  of  chances 
is,  however,  for  the  most  part  incapable  of  affording  a 


64  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

peremptory  proof;  it  produces  uncertainty,  disquietude, 
and  doubt. 

Yet  something  is  gained  by  substituting  doubt  for 
systematic  denial.  Eichet  has  obtained  this  important 
result,  that  henceforth  the  possibility^  of  mental  sugges- 
tion cannot  be  met  with  contemptuous  rejection. 

While  Richet,  followed  by  Pierre  Janet  and  others, 
has  been  trying  experiments  in  France,  a  Society  has 
been  formed  in  England,  called  the  Society  for  Psychical 
Research,  which  likewise  makes  the  transmission  of 
thought  the  object  of  study.  This  coincidence  shows 
that  the  question  is  "  in  the  air."  The  results  obtained 
in  England  are  surprising,  and  much  higher  than  those 
of  Richet.  The  least  we  can  infer  from  them  is  that 
research  should  be  continued  in  this  direction,  and  that 
we  should  not  be  justified  in  an  a  priori  denial  of  the 
possibility  of  these  phenomena  because  they  appear  to 
be  improbable  or  supernatural. 

Moreover,  if  we  consider  the  question  of  mental 
suggestion  in  its  simplest  aspect,  if  we  studj^  thought- 
reading  in  the  absence  of  any  deliberately  expressed 
movement,  we  shall  soon  see  that  we  touch  upon 
phenomena  which  physiologists  do  not  disdain  to 
consider.* 

Of  late  years  Strieker  has  strongly  insisted  on  the 
fact  that  a  mental  representation  of  a  word  or  letter 
cannot  occur  without  a  corresponding  movement  in  the 
muscles  which  serve  for  the  articulation  of  this  word  or 
letter.     This  movement,  constituting  external  speech,  is 

*  Ch.  Fere,  La  question  de  la  suggestion  mentale  est  une  question  de 
physiologie.  (Bull.  Soc.  Biologies  1886,  p.  429 ;  Revue  Philosophique, 
March,  1886,  p.  261.) 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  65 

not  generally  considered  as  such,  since  it  may  remain  un- 
perceived  by  the  individual  in  whom  it  occurs.  Yet  such 
a  movement  is  visible  enough  to  be  rapidly  understood  by 
certain  subjects,  as  we  have  observed  for  ourselves ;  nor 
will  the  fact  appear  surprising  to  those  who  understand 
the  process  by  which  the  deaf  are  able  to  understand 
what  is  spoken.  This  can  only  be  regarded  as  mental 
suggestion,  since  it  is  the  reading  of  unexpressed  ideas. 

But  it  is  not  only  the  muscles  concerned  in  articu- 
lation which  undergo  modifications  of  tension  under 
the  influence  of  external  excitement,  or  of  mental  repre- 
sentations :  all  the  muscles  of  the  organism  take  part 
in  this  modification.*  There  is  no  paradox  in  the  state- 
ment that  certain  subjects  are  endowed  with  a  peculiar 
sensitiveness  which  enables  them  to  seize  these  changes 
of  form.  The  experiments  in  graphology  undertaken  by 
Richet,  Ferrari,  and  Hericourt  constitute  another  and 
no  less  interesting  process,  which  shows  that  each  psychi- 
cal state  corresponds  to  a  dynamic  state,  characterized 
by  objective  phenomena  which  come  within  the  depart- 
ment of  physiology. 

If  it  is  true  that  every  psychical  phenomenon  is  accom- 
panied by  vascular  modifications,!  and  consequently  by 
modifications  of  colour,  of  temperature,  of  secretion,  etc., 
we  shall  not  push  the  hypothesis  too  far  if  we  admit 
that  excessively  sensitive  subjects  are  capable  of  feeling 
these  thermic  or  secretory  modifications. 

Nothing  occurs  in  the  mind  without  a  modification 

*  Ch.  Fere,  Sensation  et  mouvement  (Eevue  PJdlosophique,  October, 
1885  ;  March,  July,  1886). 

t  Ch.  Feie,  Changements  de  volume  des  memhres  sous  Vinfluence  dee 
excitations  peripheriques  et  des  representations  mentales  (Bull.  Soc.  Biol,., 
1886,  p.  399). 


66  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

of  matter,  and  it  is  impossible  to  say  at  what  point  these 
modifications  of  matter  may  become  perceptible.  The 
study  of  mental  suggestion  is  thus  reduced  to  the  reading 
of  involuntary  signs,  and  includes  research  into  our  most 
subtle  reactions,  and  the  measurement  of  the  differential 
sensitiveness  of  various  subjects,  and  especially  of  those 
who  in  their  several  states  are  hyper-excitable.  This 
study  should  not  be  relegated  to  the  occult  sciences,  to 
the  unknowable;  it  is  a  most  interesting  physiological 
question. 


(    67    ) 


CHAPTER  III. 

HISTOKT  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.— BRAID  :  HYPNOTISM — 
GRIMES,  AZAM,  DURAND  DE  GROS,  DEMARQUAY,  AND 
GIRAUD-TEULON,  LIEBAULT,  CH.  RICHET,  CHARCOT, 
AND   P.   RICHER. 

At  the  time  when  the  Paris  Academy  of  Medicine  was 
condemning  animal  magnetism.  Dr.  James  Braid,  a 
Manchester  surgeon,  directed  the  question  into  its  proper 
field — that  of  observation  and  experiment.  Braid  must  be 
regarded  as  the  initiator  of  the  scientific  study  of  animal 
magnetism.  For  this  reason,  since  it  expresses  the 
change  of  method  which  he  effected,  it  is  usual  to  sub- 
stitute for  that  of  animal  magnetism  the  word  hypnotison, 
by  which  he  .  designated  the  artificial  nervous  sleep. 
Magnetism  and  hypnotism  are  fundamentally  synony- 
mous terms,  but  the  first  connotes  a  certain  number 
of  complex  and  extraordinary  phenomena,  which  have 
always  compromised  the  cause  of  these  fruitful  studies. 
The  term  hypnotism  is  exclusively  applied  to  a  definite 
nervous  state,  observable  under  certain  conditions, 
subject  to  general  rules,  produced  by  known  and  in 
no  sense  mysterious  processes,  and  based  on  modifica- 
tions of  the  functions  of  the  patient's  nervous  system. 
Thus  it  appears  that  hypnotism  has  arisen  from  animal 


68  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

magnetism,  just  as  the   physico-medical  sciences  arose 
from  the  occult  sciences  of  the  Middle  Ao-es. 

o 

Braid  began  to  observe  the  results  of  magnetism 
merely  as  an  inquirer,  and  even  as  a  sceptic.  In 
November,  1841,  he  was  present  for  the  first  time  at 
some  public  experiments  performed  by  Lafontaine,  a 
Swiss  magnetizer.  Convinced  that  the  phenomena 
which  he  saw  were  only  due  to  an  adroit  imposture,  he 
was  anxious  to  discover  by  what  means  the  operator  was 
able  to  dupe  his  audience.  He  was  soon  satisfied  that 
these  phenomena,  however  strange,  were  quite  genuine. 
But  he  saw  no  reason  for  admitting  with  Lafontaine  that 
they  were  the  consequence  of  the  operator's  personal 
action  on  his  subject,  by  means  of  a  magnetic  fluid ;  he 
rather  considered  them  to  be  due  to  a  subjective  state, 
independent  of  all  external  influence.  This  was  the  first 
result  of  Braid's  researches ;  he  showed  that  the  theoretic 
fluid  was  not  required  to  explain  hypnotic  phenomena. 

Braid  gives  the  following  account  of  the  way  in 
which  he  arrived  at  this  discovery.  All  which  he  saw 
at  the  first  magnetic  seance  left  him  incredulous.  At 
a  second  seance,  six  days  later,  his  attention  was  struck 
by  the  fact  that  it  was  not  possible  for  the  patient  to 
open  his  eyes.  He  regarded  this  incapacity  as  a  real 
phenomenon,  for  which  he  sought  the  physical  cause ;  it 
occurred  to  him  that  this  cause  might  be  found  in  the 
fixed  gaze,  which  has  the  efiect  of  exhausting  and 
paralyzing  the  nervous  centres  of  the  eyes  and  their 
appendages.  It  signifies  little  whether  this  explanation 
is  true  or  false — it  is  only  a  matter  of  detail ;  but  it  is 
important  that  Braid  should  have  regarded  this  first 
symptom  of  hypnotism,  the  spasm  of  the   orhicvlaris 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM.  69 

palpebrarum,  as  due  to  a  modification  of  the  state  of  the 
nervous  system.  Two  days  later  he  began,  in  the  presence 
of  his  family  and  friends,  a  series  of  experiments,  in- 
tended to  justify  his  theory.  He  tells  us  that  he 
requested  his  friend  Walker  to  sit  down  and  look  fixedly 
at  the  neck  of  a  wine-bottle,  which  was  placed  at  such 
a  height  as  to  cause  considerable  fatigue  to  his  eyes  and 
eyelids  when  he  looked  at  it  attentively.  In  three 
minutes  the  eyelids  closed,  tears  flowed  down  his  cheeks, 
his  head  drooped,  his  countenance  was  slightly  contracted, 
a  sigh  escaped  from  him,  and  at  the  same  moment  he  fell 
into  a  deep  sleep.  Mrs.  Braid  was  much  astonished  by 
the  patient's  fear  and  agitation  when  he  awoke,  for 
which  she  could  see  no  cause,  since  she  had  not  ceased 
to  w^atch  her  husband,  and  she  had  seen  that  he  did  not 
approach  Walker,  nor  touch  him  in  any  way.  Braid 
proposed  that  she  should  herself  submit  to  the  operation, 
to  which  she  readily  assented,  assuring  those  present 
that  she  should  be  less  easily  frightened  than  the  first 
subject.  Braid  made  his  wife  sit  down  and  fix  her  eyes 
on  the  ornaments  of  a  porcelain  sugar-basin,  which  was 
placed  at  about  the  same  angle  with  the  eyes  as  that 
formed  by  the  bottle  in  the  previous  experiment.  In 
two  minutes  the  expression  of  her  features  was  changed ; 
in  two  and  a  half  minutes  the  eyelids  closed  wdth  a 
convulsive  movement,  the  mouth  was  distorted,  the 
patient  sighed  deeply,  the  chest  heaved,  she  fell  back. 
It  was  evident  that  she  had  passed  through  a  paroxysm 
of  hysteria,  and  Braid  then  awoke  her. 

This  account  shows  that  there  was  nothing  complex 
nor  mysterious  in  the  process  which  caused  sleep ;  it  was 
only  necessary  for  the  subject  to  concentrate  his  attention 


70  AMIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

and  his  gaze  for  a  few  minutes  on  a  given  object.  A 
hrilliant  object  was  sometimes  employed,  but  this  was 
not  an  indispensable  condition. 

From  this  time  the  reality  of  somnambulism  was 
established;  it  became  a  state  subject  to  observation, 
which  any  one  could  produce  at  pleasure.  Numerous 
observers  since  Braid  have  repeated  the  experiment  of 
the  fixity  of  gaze,  and  have  reproduced  precisely  the 
same  phenomena.  The  simultaneous  fixing  of  the 
attention  appears  to  be  necessary  as  a  rule,  and  Braid 
considers  that  this  explains  why  idiots  cannot  be 
hypnotized. 

This  important  discovery  throws  a  vivid  light  on 
religious  practices  which  up  to  that  time  had  been 
inexplicable.  We  know  that  Indian  devotees  are  thrown 
into  an  ecstasy  of  union  with  God,  by  contemplating  for 
hours  an  imaginary  point  in  space.  The  monks  of  Mount 
Athos  were  addicted  to  the  same  practice,  fixing  their 
gaze  on  their  navels.  These  are  evidently  hypnotic 
states,. produced  by  the  fixity  of  gaze. 

Since  he  showed  that  hypnotism  could  be  produced 
by  fixing  the  eyes  on  an  inanimate  object,  such  as  the 
stopper  of  a  bottle  or  the  blade  of  a  lancet,  Braid 
proved  that  this  nervous  state  did  not  necessarily  result 
from  the  transmission  of  a  fluid  by  the  operator.  He 
had  therefore  simplified  the  study  of  hypnotism  by 
getting  rid  of  all  the  marvellous  phenomena  which  had 
discredited  it  for  such  a  length  of  time.  But  Braid's 
conclusions  were  too  absolute.  The  first  conceptions  of 
things  are  always  simpler  than  the  reality.  It  would  be 
a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  personality  of  the  operator 
never  has  anything  to  do  with  the  phenomena  displayed 


HISTORY   OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  71 

before  him.  Broca's  assertion  must  not  be  taken  literally, 
"The  subject  is  not  jput  to  sleep;  he  goes  to  sleep."  The 
sleep  produced  by  fixing  the  eyes  on  a  brilliant  object 
sometimes  differs  in  certain  points  from  the  sleep  produced 
by  personal  intervention.  We  shall  soon  have  occasion 
to  show  that  in  some  cases  the  patient  displays  a  sort  of 
affinity  for  the  person  who  puts  him  to  sleep,  and  who 
touches  his  bare  hands. 

Braid  pursued  his  investigations  further.  His  most 
important  discovery  relates  to  the  effect  produced  by  a 
given  attitude  on  the  subject's  sentiments.  When  placed 
in  the  attitude  of  anger,  with  clenched  fists,  his  counte- 
nance assumes  a  menacing  expression,  and  he  begins  to 
box ;  if  he  is  made  to  imitate  the  action  of  sending  a 
kiss,  his  mouth  smiles.  So,  again,  the  action  of  climbing 
or  swimming  is  produced  when  the  body  is  placed  in  the 
position  required  for  executing  the  several  acts. 

These  were  Braid's  two  chief  discoveries ;  he  also 
made  several  observations  of  which  the  justice  has  now 
been  admitted.  He  ascertained  that  the  character  of 
the  sleep  was  not  always  the  same,  but  that  it  consisted 
of  a  series  of  states,  varying  from  a  light  slumber  up  to 
the  most  profound  sleep.  He  observed  that  breathing  on 
the  face  had  the  singular  effect  of  changing  the  hypnotic 
state,  and  breathing  on  it  for  the  second  time  caused  the 
subject  to  awake.  He  also  observed  that  the  senses,  espe- 
cially those  of  touch,  smell,  and  hearing,  might  suddenly 
become  excessively  acute  in  hypnotized  subjects,  and  it 
appeared  to  him  that  this  sensorial  modification  might 
afford  a  rational  explanation  of  some  of  the  marvellous 
eflects  obtained  by  professional  magnetizers.  Finally,  he 
observed  that  verbal  suggestion  might  produce  hallucina- 


72  ANBIAL    MAGNETISM. 

tions,  emotions,  paralysis,  etc.  Suggestion  during  the 
waking  state,  which  has  latterly  been  asserted  by  some 
writers  to  be  possible,  did  not  escape  his  notice. 

Although  so  many  of  his  observations  were  just. 
Braid's  descriptions  of  hypnotism  are  not  definite ;  they 
contain  an  indiscriminate  account  of  all  the  symptoms 
of  hypnotism,  anaesthesia,  hyperaesthesia,  hallucinations, 
paralysis,  suggestions  of  theft  and  other  criminal  acts, 
unilateral  hypnosis,  duplication  of  the  consciousness,  etc., 
as  if  all  these  phenomena  had  not  their  peculiar  con- 
ditions, and  did  not  belong  to  distinct  states.  Braid's 
imperfect  work  has  been  completed  by  the  Salpetriere 
school,  which  shows  that  hypnotism  is  a  nervous 
condition,  presenting  characteristics  which  vary  in  in- 
tensity, if  not  in  their  nature,  so  that  it  is  possible  to 
distinguish  the  several  phases  or  states  in  which  the 
action  of  the  subject  varies. 

In  addition  to  the  want  of  classification  betrayed  by 
this  disorderly  exposition  of  facts,  Braid  has  erred  in 
putting  in  one  category  the  unproved  and  the  uncertain, 
the  uncertain  and  the  purely  imaginative.  A  few  pages 
of  his  book  suffice  to  show  that  we  have  to  do  with  a 
believer  rather  than  with  an  observer. 

Braid  has  also  been  blamed  for  his  unsatisfactory 
experiments  in  phreno-hypnotism,  intended  to  prove 
the  possibility  of  exciting  special  sentiments,  ideas,  and 
acts,  by  pressing  on  the  humps  of  the  skull  of  a  hypno- 
tized subject.  The  account  of  these  experiments  occupies 
an  important  place  in  his  Neurypnology.  Braid,  after 
taking  care  to  inform  us  that,  while  making  use  of 
phrenology,  he  is  no  materialist,  confidently  asserts  that 
he   could   inspire   the  idea  of  theft  by  pressing  on  the 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  73 

organ  of  acquisitiveness  ;  of  fighting,  by  pressing  on  that 
of  combativeness ;  of  prayer,  by  pressing  on  the  organ  of 
veneration,  etc. 

The  following  experiment  was  the  most  curious  of 
the  series,  and  will  give  an  idea  of  the  others.  Acquisi- 
tiveness was  excited,  and  the  subject  stole  a  silver  snuff- 
box from  one  of  the  spectators ;  the  pressure  was  then 
transferred  to  the  organ  of  conscientiousness,  and  the 
patient  surrendered  the  object  with  a  striking  air  of 
contrition.  Braid  seems  to  have  foreseen  the  charge  of 
simulation,  and  he  takes  care  to  affirm  that  several  of 
his  phrenological  experiments  were  performed  on  persons 
who  knew  nothing  about  phrenology,  and  whose  honour 
was  unimpeachable.  It  is  easy,  up  to  a  certain  point,  to 
understand  the  strange  illusion  of  which  Braid  was  the 
dupe.  He  had  not  observed  the  importance  of  that 
frequent  source  of  error  called  unconscious  suggestion. 
It  is  now  known  that  an  indiscreet  word  uttered  before 
subjects  very  sensitive  to  suggestion  is  enough  to  show 
what  is  expected  of  them,  and  to  make  them  act  in  the 
sense  intended  by  the  operator.  A  gesture  may  some- 
times produce  the  same  effect,  and  this  explains  how,  in 
some  public  exhibitions,  the  magnetizer,  having  agreed 
with  his  subject  to  deceive  the  spectators,  is  able  to 
make  him  obey  mental  orders  without  expressing  them 
verbally.  There  is  in  reality  no  communication  by 
thought,  but  by  signs  which  are  comprehended  by  the 
subject  with  extraordinary  quickness  of  perception.  In 
Braid's  experiments  it  is  probable  that  something 
analogous  occurred,  although  there  was  no  imposture. 
Braid  was  doubtless  as  honest  as  his  subjects,  but  the 
latter  unconsciously  obeyed  a  gesture  or  word,  or  were 


74  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

unconsciously  influenced  by  the  recollection  of  a  previous 
seance.  This  seems  the  more  probable  assumption,  since 
Braid's  subjects  were  often  people  in  good  society, 
assembled  to  take  part  in  a  seance  of  phreno-hypnotism, 
and  who,  after  seeing  what  Braid  effected  on  others, 
voluntarily  submitted  to  be  the  subjects  of  experiment. 

Braid's  errors  are  not,  however,  wholly  devoid  of 
truth.  Numerous  observers  have  declared  that  pressure 
on  the  heads  of  hypnotic  subjects  produces  a  surprising 
variety  of  sensory  and  motor  effects. 

As  a  physician.  Braid  was  much  occupied  in  applying 
hypnotism  to  therapeutics.  His  observations  refer  to 
diseases  of  the  eye,  to  tic-douloureux,  nervous  headaches, 
spinal  irritation,  neuralgia  of  the  heart,  palpitations  and 
irregular  action  of  the  heart,  epilepsy,  paralysis,  convul- 
sions, tonic  spasms,  affections  of  the  skin,  rheumatism, 
etc.  We  cannot  refrain  from  the  belief  that  here  again 
Braid  was  deceived  in  more  than  one  instance,  but  he 
must  be  credited  with  having  made  a  fairly  methodical 
study  of  hypnotic  therapeutics. 

The  results  of  Braid's  labours  have  in  our  day  been 
considerable.  He  has  the  merit  of  having  proved  that 
animal  magnetism  is  a  natural  phenomenon,  a  definite 
nervous  condition,  produced  by  means  of  known  pro- 
cesses. Lasegue  regards  him  as  an  indifferent  physiologist. 
But  this  matters  little,  since  many  more  intelligent  and 
liberal  minds  have  not  the  merit  of  having  discovered 
a  single  new  fact.  Indeed,  it  appears  that  a  certain 
narrowness  of  mind,  allied  with  an  obstinate  will,  is  to 
some  extent  characteristic  of  the  innovator.* 

*  We  subjoin  a  list  of  Braid's  works  :  Neurypnology ;  or,  Tlie  Bationdle 
of  Nervous  Sleep,  considered  in  relation  with  Animal  Magnetism,  by  Jamea 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  75 

Braid's  discovery  had  little  success  in  his  own  country, 
although  it  obtained  the  support  of  the  physiologist 
Carpenter.  In  1842  he  submitted  his  researches  to  the 
medical  section  of  the  British  Association,  and  offered  to 
repeat  his  experiments  before  a  special  commission. 
The  offer  was  formally  rejected,  and  the  section  proceeded 
to  other  matters.  It  was  said  that  this  subject,  like  so 
many  others,  must  make  its  way  independently  of  learned 
bodies.  Braid  was  not  discouraged,  and  became  the 
propagator  of  hypnotism  with  the  indefatigable  ardour 
Avhich  is  characteristic  of  innovators,  and  which  we  have 
lately  observed  in  Burq,  the  inventor  of  metallo-therapia. 
He  held  many  experimental  seances  in  London,  Liver- 
pool, and  Manchester,  without  obtaining  the  justice  due 
to  him. 

Braid's  theory  had  more  success  in  America,  but  not 
under  his  own  name.  In  1848  an  American  named 
Grimes,  who  does  not  appear  to  have  been  acquainted 
with  Braid's  discovery,  showed  that  most  of  the  hypnotic 
phenomena  could  in  certain  subjects  be  produced  in  the 
waking  state  by  means  of  verbal  suggestion.  This 
theory,  which  passed  in  the  United  States  under  the 
somewhat  absurd  name  of  electro-biology,  reached  Eng- 
land in  1850,  and  produced  a  new  movement  in  favour 
of  hypnotism. 

Although  extracts  from  Braid's  works  were  published 
by   Littre  and  Robin,  by  Robin   and  Beraud,  etc.,  and 

Braid  (London  :  John  Churcliill,  1813);  Tlie  Poioer  of  the  Mind  over  the 
Body  (1846) ;  Observations  on  Trance,  or  Human  Hybernation  (1850);  Magic^ 
Witchcraft,  Animal  Magnetism,  Hypnotism,  and  Electro-biology  (1852) ;  The 
Physiology  of  Fascination  (1855);  Observations  on  the  Nature  and  Treatment 
of  Certain  Forms  of  Paralysis  (1855). 


76  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

there  was  an  article  on  the   subject  in  the  Presse  by 
Meunier,  his  theories  were  little  known  in  France. 

In  1850  the  question  was,  however,  again  brought 
before  the  French  public  by  Azam,  a' Bordeaux  surgeon. 
Azam  had  been  called  in  to  see  a  poor  girl  who  was 
said  to  be  insane,  and  who  presented  the  singular  phe- 
nomena of  spontaneous  catalepsy,  of  anaesthesia,  and  of 
hypersesthesia.  Azam  was  acquainted  with  the  mag- 
netic phenomena  of  artificial  somnambulism,  and  was 
struck  by  the  correspondence  between  these  and  those 
which  occurred  spontaneously  in  his  patient.  One  of 
his  colleagues  mentioned  to  him  Braid's  experiments, 
which  were  reported  in  Todd's  Encyclopedia,  and  he 
tried  to  repeat  these  experiments  on  his  patient,  not 
without  misgivings.  He  tells  us  that  "  at  the  first 
attempt,  after  being  subjected  for  one  or  two  minutes  to 
the  usual  process,  the  patient  fell  asleep :  the  anaesthesia 
was  complete,  and  it  was  evident  that  she  was  in  a  state 
of  catalepsy.  Hypersesthesia  afterwards  supervened, 
accompanied  by  the  power  of  answering  questions,  and 
other  symptoms  indicative  of  the  exercise  of  the  intelli- 
gence." *  Similar  experiments  were  successfully  per- 
formed by  Azam  on  another  girl  living  in  the  same 
house,  for  the  most  part  such  experiments  as  had  been 
described  by  Braid.  We  quote  an  instance  of  suggestions 
by  means  of  the  muscular  sense :  "  If,  during  the  period 

of  catalepsy,  I  place  Mile.  X 's  arms  in  the  position 

of  prayer,  and  leave  them  thus  for  a  certain  time,  she 
states  that  her  thoughts  are  fixed  on  prayer,  and  that 
she  supposes  herself  to  be  present  at  a  religious  rite. 
When  placed  with  folded  arms  and  drooping  head,  she 
*  Archives  de  M^decine^  1860,  p.  8. 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  77 

feels  her  mind  possessed  by  a  series  of  ideas  of  humility 
and  contrition.  When  her  head  is  raised  her  ideas 
become  haughty."  The  hyperaesthesia  of  the  senses  is 
no  less  decided.  Azam  asserts  that  the  hearinof  becomes 
so  acute  as  to  distinoruish  the  tickinfj  of  a  watch  at  the 
distance  of  nine  or  ten  yards  :  this  sensitiveness  to  noise 
fatigues  the  subjects,  and  an  expression  of  pain  passes 
over  the  face  at  the  rolling  of  carriages,  the  human 
voice,  etc.     When  a  bare  hand  is  placed  behind  her  back, 

at  a  distance  of  forty  centimetres,  Mile.  X stoops 

forward  and  complains  of  feeling  the  heat. 

Azam  was,  however,  chiefly  struck  by  the  general 
ansesthesia  which  frequently  accompanied  the  hypnotic 
sleep.  In  concert  with  Broca,  he  sought  in  hypnotism 
a  fresh  mode  of  producing  anaesthesia  during  surgical 
operations.  This  idea  gained  ground.  Broca  remarks 
that  a  method  which  introduces  no  foreign  substance 
into  the  system  appears  to  him  to  be  absolutely  in- 
offensive. This,  however,  is  erroneous,  since  death  may 
be  produced  by  a  suggestion.  In  1851  Broca  and  Follin 
put  a  woman  under  hypnotism  before  making  an  incision 
in  an  abscess  in  the  anus.  This  fact  was  communicated 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  by  Velpeau,  who,  in  an- 
nouncing with  satisfaction  this  "new  discovery,"  appeared 
to  have  no  doubt  that  animal  magnetism,  which  had 
been  condemned  by  the  Academy,  had  reappeared  under 
a  new  name.  A  few  days  later  Guerineau,  of  Poitiers, 
employed  the  same  hypnotic  anaesthesia  during  the 
amputation  of  a  thigh.  The  interest  in  hypnotism 
became  general,  and  it  was  remembered  that  as  early 
as  1829  Cioquet  had  amputated  the  breast  of  a  mag- 
netized   woman,  and  that  Loysel  had   performed  very 


78  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

serious  operations  under  like  conditions.  It  was,  how- 
ever, a  transient  interest,  since  the  surgeons  perceived 
that  the  hypnotic  sleep  could  not  be  produced  in  all 
subjects ;  that  even  in  those  most  susceptible  to  it,  a  series 
of  daily  hypnotizations  must  precede  the  operation,  and 
that  sometimes,  instead  of  producing  angesthesia,  the 
converse  effect  of  hypersesthesia  was  produced.  These 
failures  were  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  not  then 
known  that  suggestion  might  be  used  to  produce  in- 
sensibility. Chloroform  was,  therefore,  soon  preferred  to 
hypnotism  as  the  safer  and  more  convenient  means. 
The  year  1860  witnessed  the  dawn  and  decline  of  the 
prevailing  fashion  of  employing  hypnotism  to  produce 
surgical  anaesthesia. 

The  question  of  animal  magnetism,  which  had  been 
proscribed  twenty  years  before  by  the  Academy  of 
Medicine,  was,  however,  reopened.  The  reality  of  the 
nervous  sleep  was  no  longer  disputed;  the  mode  of 
producing  it  was  known,  as  well  as  its  main  symptoms. 
Distinguished  physicians  were  now  anxious  to  study 
these  phenomena,  without  fear  of  compromising  them- 
selves. It  was  at  this  time  that  the  works  of  Demarquay, 
and  Giraud-Teulon,  Gigot-Suard,  Liebault,  and  Philips 
(Durand  de  Gros)  appeared. 

The  chief  result  of  these  researches  was  to  confirm 
Braid's  work  in  essential  particulars.  It  was  again 
proved  that  the  personality  of  the  hypnotizer  is  not  a 
necessary  element  in  producing  the  subject's  sleep. 
Demarquay  and  Giraud-Teulon,  in  order  to  ward  off  the 
influence  of  the  experimenter's  gaze,  made  use  of  a 
polished  steel  baU,  which  was  mounted  on  a  stalk  and 
fastened  to   a  diadem ;  this  diadem  was  placed  on  the 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  79 

subject's  head,  and  his  eyes  were  consequently  drawn 
into  the  indicated  convergence  without  the  intervention 
of  the  experimenter.*  It  is  needless  to  add  that  this 
method  produced  sleep  in  the  subject,  just  as  other 
methods  did.  Gigot-Suard  even  ascertained  that  a  bril- 
liant object  need  not  be  presented  to  the  eyes,  and  that 
the  fixity  of  gaze  would  suffice.  It  was  enough  to  order 
the  subject  to  look  at  his  nose,  and  then  immediately  to 
bandage  his  eyes.     This  also  produced  hypnosis. 

Demarquay  and  Giraud-Teulon  agreed  that  a  pre- 
disposition to  hysteria  was  a  general  condition  of  hypnotic 
effects.  In  fact,  results  were  only  obtained  from  four 
persons  out  of  eighteen,  and  these  four  were  all  women ; 
the  men  submitted  to  experiment  were  altogether  refrac- 
tory. Moreover,  in  one  of  these  women  the  attempt  at 
hypnotization  produced  the  first  symptoms  of  an  hysteric 
attack.  Hence  they  concluded  that  the  nervous  state 
designated  as  hypnotism  was  not  physiological,  but  alto- 
gether morbid.  The  work  by  Demarquay  and  Giraud- 
Teulon  is  brief,  accurate,  and  full  of  carefully  observed 
facts,  without  the  mystical  tendency  which  is  found  in 
Braid.  It  is  perhaps  the  first  work  on  hypnotism  of  a 
strictly  scientific  character. 

Durand  de  Gros,  better  known  as  Dr.  Philips,  since 
he  was  one  of  the  proscribed  of  December  2,  and  as- 
sumed this  name  in  order  to  return  to  France,  delivered 
public  lectures  on  hypnotism  in  Belgium,  Switzerland, 
France,  and  Algeria.  In  1860  he  published  a  Cours 
theorique  et  pratique  de  Braidisme,  in  which  he  developed 
his  ideas  on  the  mechanism  of  hypnosis.  But  the  medical 
world  was  not  much  moved  by  his  abstract  conceptions 
•  Recherche  sur  VHypnotisme  (^Gazette  Medicate  de  Paris,  1859,  18G0). 


80  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

of  the  hypotaxic  state  and  of  ideoplasticism,  of  which  we 
will  only  say  a  few  words.  According  to  this  author,  the 
exercise  of  thought  is  necessary  for  the  regular  diffusion 
of  nervous  force  into  the  sensory  nerves  ;  the  exercise  of 
this  mental  activity  is  suspended  by  hypnotism,  or  rather 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  submitting  it  to  the  exclusive 
excitement  of  a  simple,  homogeneous,  and  continuous 
sensation.  Since  the  nervous  force  is  no  longer  consumed 
by  thought,  it  accumulates  in  the  brain,  and  this  sort  of 
nervous  congestion  is  termed  the  hypotaxic  state.  But, 
by  a  special  impression  on  the  sight,  the  hearing,  or  the 
touch,  a  given  point  of  the  brain  may  be  excited,  so  that 
all  the  disposable  nervous  force  may  be  accumulated  on 
it.  The  same  result  may  be  obtained  with  a  mental 
impression,  as  with  a  sensorial  impression;  it  awakens 
the  activity  proper  to  a  given  part  of  the  brain,  and 
produces  the  most  varied  effects.  This  is  ideoplasticism. 
Durand  de  Gros's  theories  somewhat  resemble  those 
set  forth  five  years  later  by  Liebault,  a  physician  of 
Nancy,  in  a  work  entitled,  "  Sleep,  and  the  states  analo- 
gous to  it,  specially  considered  in  the  action  of  the  morale 
on  the  physique  "  (Nancy,  1866).  In  his  preface  Liebault 
writes :  "  In  my  endeavour  to  study  the  passive  modes  of 
existence,  I  have  first  sought  to  demonstrate  the  truth 
that  they  are  the  effects  of  a  mental  action,  and  then  to 
make  my  readers  acquainted  with  their  properties,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  action  of  the  Tnorale  on  the 
physique."  In  these  words  we  find  the  germ  of  the  idea 
developed  by  subsequent  writers,  who  wish  to  prove  that 
all  the  phenomena  of  artificial  sleep, — both  mental  and 
physical  phenomena,  such  as  contractions,  catalepsy,  etc., 
— are  produced  by  suggestion.     Thus,  Liebault  asserted 


HISTORY  OP  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  81 

that  artificial  as  well  as  natural  sleep  was  produced  by 
an  act  of  the  intelligence,  that  is,  by  concentrating  the 
attention  on  one  idea,  that  of  going  to  sleep.  This 
explanation  does  not  apply  to  those  persons  who  are 
hypnotized  against  their  will.  Liebault  goes  further, 
and  maintains  that  modifications  of  the  attention,  its 
too  energetic  retreat  into  the  brain,  etc.,  cause  the 
difficulty  of  breathing,  the  dilatation  of  the  pupils,  the 
weight  of  the  head,  singing  in  the  ears,  cyanosis,  and  the 
palpitations  of  the  heart  which  accompany  the  approach 
of  sleep.  In  Liebault's  opinion,  attention  appears  to  sum 
up  the  action  of  the  mind  on  the  physique.  Concentration 
of  the  attention  causes  the  isolation  of  the  senses,  the 
cessation  of  muscular  movements,  the  establishment  of  a 
rapport  between  the  somnambulist  and  the^  operator, 
catalepsy,  etc.  The  afflux  of  attention  to  the  organs  of 
the  senses  increases  their  power  of  perception ;  its 
accumulation  on  the  "  empreintes  sensorielles  "  quickens 
the  memory,  and  so  it  is  with  the  other  senses.  On 
waking  from  a  state  of  profound  hypnotism,  there  is 
oblivion,  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  the  nervous 
force  accumulated  in  the  brain  during  sleep  is,  on  awaking, 
again  diffused  throughout  the  organism ;  since  the  nervous 
force  is  diminished  in  the  brain,  it  is  impossible  for  the 
subject  to  recall  to  mind  that  of  which  he  was  previously 
aware. 

Liebault's  ideas  were  received  with  incredulity ;  his 
mode  of  practice  appeared  to  be  so  singular  that  it  was 
rejected  by  his  colleagues  without  further  examination. 
He  lived  in  retirement,  apart  from  the  medical  world,  and 
entirely  devoted  to  his  convictions  and  to  his  patients, 
who  were  almost  wholly  of  the  poorer  class.     It  is  not 


82  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

difficult  to  understand  the  cause  of  his  failure.  His 
book  does  not  contain  any  clear  and  definite  account  of 
hypnotism ;  the  symptoms  which  result  from  this  pro- 
found modification  of  the  system  are  not  the  object  of 
a  methodical  study,  and  his  descriptions  are  vague  and 
without  definite  character.  There  is,  perhaps,  not  a 
single  scientific  proof  of  hypnotism  in  the  whole  book. 
Yet  we  must  give  Li^bault  credit  for  having  been  a 
conscientious  observer,  convinced  of  the  truth  of  his 
practice.  It  is  said  that  his  convictions  brought  him 
into  unpleasant  relations  with  his  colleagues,  and  it  is 
probable  that  they  would  never  have  been  accepted 
without  the  labours  of  Charcot  and  his  pupils,  who  re- 
established the  study  of  hypnotism,  simply  by  giving  an 
accurate  description  of  the  physical  characteristics  of 
some  of  the  nervous  states  designated  by  that  name. 

The  theories  of  Braid  were  now  again  in  the 
ascendant.  Up  to  1878  nothing  of  much  novelty  was 
contributed  to  them.  We  need  only  mention  the  works 
of  Mesnet  (1860),  of  Las^gue  (1865),  of  Baillif  (1868), 
of  Pau  de  Saint- Martin  (1869).  No  advance  was  made, 
but  the  same  ground  was  traversed  again. 

There  is  a  good  account  of  the  works  of  this  period 
in  an  article  by  Duval,  which  appeared  in  1874  in  the 
Dictionnaire  pratique  de  Tnddicine  et  de  chirurgie.  At 
the  same  date,  Dechambre  declared  in  the  Dictionnaire. 
encyclope'dique  des  sciences  medicales  that  animal  mag- 
netism did  not  exist. 

By  degrees  the  question  sank  into  silence  and 
oblivion.  The  more  earnest  minds  turned  away  from  it, 
and  abandoned  the  subject  to  professional  magnetizers, 
who  contrived  to  make  money  by  public  exhibitions  of 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  83 

hypnotism.  From  time  to  time  a  man  of  note  attempted 
to  shake  off  the  general  indifference,  but  no  response 
was  made.  In  1875,  Ch.  Richet  published  in  the  Journal 
de  Vanatomie  et  de  la  physiologie  the  result  of  some 
researches  on  hypnotism,  which  he  had  made  while 
house-surgeon  of  a  hospital.  Although  the  paper  was 
interesting  and  full  of  facts,  it  obtained  little  notice. 

At  about  the  same  time  the  somnambulism  of  animals 
was  studied  in  Germany.  As  Richet  justly  observes: 
"  In  order  to  judge  of  the  question  of  simulation,  nothing 
can  be  simpler  than  to  perform  experiments  on  beings 
incapable  of  playing  a  part."  But  it  was  ascertained,  on 
setting  to  work,  that  the  symptoms  of  somnambulism  in 
animals  are  by  no  means  strongly  marked. 

As  early  as  1646,  Father  Athanasius  Kircher  relates, 
in  a  book  entitled  Ars  Tnagna  lucis  et  umbrae,  that  if  a 
cock,  with  his  legs  tied  together,  be  placed  before  a  line 
made  upon  the  floor  with  white  chalk,  he  becomes  at  the 
end  of  a  few  moments  perfectly  motionless  ;  if  the  string 
be  untied  and  he  is  excited,  he  does  not  issue  from  the 
cataleptic  state.  This  experiment  may  be  of  still  earlier 
date,  since  it  has  been  ascribed  to  Daniel  Schwenter 
(1636).  However  this  may  be,  in  many  countries  the 
hypnotization  of  poultry  became  a  popular  amusement. 
In  1872,  Czermak  carefully  repeated  these  experiments; 
he  hypnotized  a  cock  without  making  use  of  the  ligature, 
or  of  the  chalk  line,  and  kept  the  animal  immovable. 
He  extended  the  experiment  to  other  animals,  to 
sparrows,  pigeons,  rabbits,  salamanders,  and  crabs.* 
Preyer,t    whose   treatise   on   the   subject    is    the   most 

*  Comptes  rendiis  de  VAcademie  de  Vienne,  1872,  p.  361. 
t  Die  Kataplexie,  etc.     Jena,  1878. 


84  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

complete  which  we  possess,  ascribed  most  of  the  phe- 
nomena observed  under  these  conditions  to  fear.  This 
author  holds  that  strong  excitement  produces  the  cata- 
leptic state,  that  is,  a  paralysis  due  to  fear.  For  instance, 
if  a  lizard's  tail,  or  a  frog's  foot,  is  suddenly  pinched,  the 
animal  becomes  petrified,  sometimes  for  several  minutes, 
and  is  incapable  of  moving  its  limbs.  Gentle  and 
protracted  excitement  is  needed  to  effect  the  hypnosis  of 
animals.  If  the  nostrils  of  a  guinea-pig  are  kept  for 
some  time  slightly  compressed  with  a  pair  of  pincers,  the 
animal  becomes  hypnotic,  and  is  thrown  into  such  a 
stupor  that  it  can  be  placed  in  the  most  absurd  positions 
without  being  awakened.  This  arbitrary  distinction 
between  catalepsy  and  hypnotism  has  not  been  accepted. 
We  need  only  note  that  many  animals  can  be  hypnotized, 
either  by  a  brief  and  strong  excitement  of  the  skin,  or  by 
a  repeated  and  fainter  action  of  the  same  kind. 

The  experiments  on  the  frog  are  interesting,  and  easy 
to  reproduce.  Heubel  *  has  shown  that  if  a  lively  frog 
is  lightly  held  between  the  fingers,  with  the  thumb  on 
the  belly,  and  the  four  fingers  on  the  back,  the  animal 
becomes  perfectly  motionless  at  the  end  of  two  or  three 
minutes ;  it  may  be  stretched  upon  its  back,  or  placed  in 
all  sorts  of  positions,  without  making  any  attempt  at 
defence  or  escape.  The  same  paralytic  state  may  be 
produced  by  gently  scratching  the  frog's  back.  But  it 
must  be  admitted  that  none  of  these  facts  throw  much 
fresh  light  on  animal  magnetism,  and  we  do  not,  therefore, 
insist  on  them  further. 

We  now  come  to  the  year  1878,  and  to  the  researches 
of  the  Salpetriere  school. 

*  Archives  Tfluger,  vol.  xiv. 


HISTORY   OF   ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  85 

The  history  of  animal  magnetism  has  shown  that  if, 
up  to  late  years,  the  existence  of  the  nervous  sleep,  and 
of  the  various  phenomena  allied  with  it,  has  been 
doubted,  it  is  chiefly  because  the  experimenters  wanted 
method,  and  were  principally  concerned  with  the  study  of 
complex  psychical  phenomena.  Such  phenomena  often 
lack  the  material  characteristics  which  would  place  them 
beyond  dispute.  Since  the  proofs  of  these  remarkable 
manifestations  were  wanting,  it  was  at  once  concluded 
that  they  were,  at  any  rate,  hypothetical,  if  not  false. 

The  disputes  and  doubts  might  have  gone  on  in- 
definitely, but  for  the  intervention  of  material  facts, 
which  it  was  impossible  to  interpret  in  different  senses. 
These  material  facts  could  not  be  at  once  discovered  in  the 
domain  of  the  complex  phenomena  which  had  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  early  experimenters ;  they  belonged 
to  the  purely  physical  order  of  things. 

We  must  add  that  these  physical  signs  of  hypnosis 
have  not  hitherto  been  observed  in  their  complete 
development,  except  in  subjects  affected  by  hysteria. 
Hence  it  follows  that  the  hypnotism  which  first  took  its 
place  in  science  is  that  of  hysterical  patients,  and  it  is 
still  termed  ^profound  hypnotism,  both  to  characterize  the 
intensity  of  its  symptoms,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
feebler  forms  which  had,  up  to  that  time,  been  exclusively 
studied  by  physicians,  and  which  may  now  be  grouped 
under  the  name  of  slight  hypnotism. 

The  method  which  led  to  the  revival  of  hypnotism 
may  be  summed  up  in  these  words :  the  production  of 
material  symptoms,  which  give  to  some  extent  an  ana- 
tomical demonstration  of  the  reality  of  a  special  state 
of  the  nervous  system.  This  is  merely  an  application  of 
5 


86  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

Descartes's  rule,  that  we  should  go  from  the  simple  to 
the  compound.  Before  adopting  this  method,  we  have 
passed  through  an  age  of  senseless  errors  and  sterile 
discussions. 

It  is  to  Charcot  that  the  honour  must  be  assigned  of 
having  been  the  first  to  enter  on  this  course,  in  which  he 
has  been  followed  by  numerous  observers.  The  violence 
with  which  he  was  attacked  is  a  proof  of  the  important 
part  he  took  in  the  question.  Whatever  objections  may- 
be made  to  his  description  of  the  different  states  known 
under  the  name  of  hypnotism,  it  is  certain  that  the 
application  of  the  nosographic  method  to  this  study 
enabled  Charcot  to  establish  phenomena  within  the 
domain  of  science  which  had  hitherto  been  regarded  as 
beyond  its  range.  Charcot  was  not  only  fortunate  enough 
to  establish  the  scientific  value  of  hypnotism,  but  to  obtain 
compensation  for  his  earlier  academic  failures  by  his 
triumphant  readmission  into  the  Academy  of  Sciences.* 

The  researches  of  the  Salpetriere  school  served  as  the 
point  of  departure  for  a  fresh  scientific  movement,  which 
continues  up  to  the  present  day. 

In  1880,  Heidenhain,  an  eminent  German  physio- 
logist, resumed  the  study  of  hypnotism,  prompted  by 
some  public  performances  at  Breslau,  given  by  a  Danish 
magnetizer  named  Hansen.  Heidenhain 's  paper  f  gave 
the  signal  for  several  other  German  publications,  among 

*  J.  M.  Charcot,  l^^ssai  d'uve  dhtinction  nosographique  des  clivers  etafs 
compris  sous  le  nom  d"  ffypnotisme  (C.  R.,  Ac.  des  Sciences,  1882). 

t  Heidenhain,  Der  sogenannte  thierische  Magnetismus ;  Pliysiologische 
BeohaeMungen  (Leipzig,  1880);  Heidenhain  iind  Griitzner,  HaTbseitige 
Hypnotismus,  Hypnotische  Aphasie,  Farhenhlindheit,  u.  Mangel  des  Temper- 
aiuriBmus  hei  Hypnotischetiy  in  Brest  AHzl.  Zeitschr.,  ii.  4.     1880. 


HISTORY  OF  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  87 

which  we  may  mention  that  by  Griitzner,*  by  Berger,t 
by  Baumler,  |  by  Preyer,  §  by  Schneider.  ||  In  France 
we  find,  among  others,  P.  Richer,  Bourneville  and 
Regnard,  Dumontpallier  and  his  pupils,  Ladame,  Bottey, 
Pitres,  Bremaud,  Bernheim,  Beaunis;  in  Italy,  Tamburini 
and  Seppili,  and  Lombroso ;  in  England,  Hack  Tuke. 

*  Grutzner,  Ueher  d,  neureren  Erfalirnngen  ans  dem  Gehiete  des  soge- 
nannten  thierischen  Magnttismus  {Cent.  f.  Nerv.  Fsch.,  10.     1880). 

t  Berger,  Hypnotische  Zustdnde,  und  ihre  Genesnng,  in  Brest.  Arztl. 
Zeitschr.,  ii.,  10,  11,  12.  1880;  Das  Verhnlten  der  Sinnesorgane,  in  hypno- 
tischen  Zustand,  in  Bresl.  Arztl.  Zeitschv.y  iii.  7.  1881;  Experimentelle 
Katalepsie  ;  Deutsch.  med.  Wochenschrift,  vi.,  10.     1880. 

X  Baumler,  Der  sogen.  animalische  Magnetismus^  oder  Bypnotismus. 
Leipzig,  1881. 

§  Preyer,  Die  Entdechung  des  Hypnotismus.     Berlin,  1881. 

II  Schneider,  Diepsych.  Ursache  der  Hypnot.  Erschein.    Leipzig,  1880. 


88  ANBIAL    MAGNETISM. 


CHAPTER  ly. 

THE  MODES   OF  PRODUCING  HYPNOSIS. 

As  far  as  its  mode  of  production  is  concerned,  hypnotic 
sleep  does  not  essentially  differ  from  natural  sleep,  of 
which  it  is  in  fact  only  a  modification,  and  all  the  causes 
which  produce  fatigue  are  capable  of  producing  hypnosis 
in  those  who  are  subject  to  it ;  it  is  in  this  sense  that  we 
may  say  with  Richer,  that  all  means  are  efiectual,  if  only 
they  are  applied  to  a  predisposed  organism. 

Sensorial  excitements  produce  hypnosis  in  two  ways  : 
when  they  are  strong  and  abrupt,  or  when  they  are  faint 
and  continued  for  a  prolonged  period. 

The  former  mode  of  excitement  was  studied  for  the 
first  time  by  Charcot  and  his  pupils,  who  employed, 
among  other  means,  vivid  impressions  on  the  sight,  such 
as  the  sudden  introduction  of  a  solar  lamp  into  a  dark 
room,  fixing  the  eyes  on  the  sun,  the  incandescence  of  a 
strip  of  magnesium,  the  electric  light,  etc.  In  hysterical 
subjects  the  intense  excitement  immediately  produces 
catalepsy.  If  the  patient  is  seated  at  work,  is  standing, 
or  walkinof,  she  is  transfixed  in  the  attitude  in  which  she 
was  surprised,  and  fear  is  expressed  in  her  countenance 
and  in  her  gestures.  The  same  effect  may  be  produced 
by  an  intense  noise,  like  that  of  a  Chinese  gong,  by  a 


THE  MODES  OF  PRODUCING  HYPNOSIS.  89 

whistle,  or  by  the  vibration  of  a  tuning-fork.  When 
the  subject  is  predisposed,  comparatively  slight,  but 
unexpected  noises,  such  for  instance  as  the  crackling 
of  a  piece  of  paper,  or  the  chinking  of  a  glass,  are  enough 
to  produce  catalepsy. 

If  the  excitement  is  moderate,  rather  than  violent,  it 
must  be  prolonged  in  order  to  cause  the  hypnotic  sleep, 
which,  however,  it  scarcely  ever  fails  to  produce.  The 
subject  is  put  to  sleep  after  Braid's  method,  by  fixing  his 
gaze  for  a  few  moments  on  an  object  which  may  be 
slightly  luminous,  or  altogether  dark,  such  as  a  black 
stick,  which  should  be  held  near  the  eyes  and  a  little 
above  them,  so  as  to  produce  a  convergent  and  superior 
strabismus.  After  a  while  the  eyes  become  humid  and 
brilliant,  the  gaze  becomes  fixed,  the  pupils  are  dilated. 
When  the  object  is  withdrawn,  the  subject  remains  in 
a  cataleptic  state ;  if  it  is  not  withdrawn,  the  subject 
soon  falls  backwards  with  a  sigh,  there  is  a  slight 
frothing  on  the  lips,  and  lethargy  ensues.  The  converg- 
ence of  the  eyes  alone  will  produce  sleep,  as  for  instance 
at  night  (Carpenter);  some  subjects  fall  asleep  spon- 
taneously when  their  eyes  are  fixed  upon  their  needle- 
work, when  they  are  reading,  or  looking  in  the  mirror 
while  dressing.  Monotonous  sounds  also  produce  sleep. 
Weinhold  and  Heidenhain  produced  hypnosis  by  causing 
the  subject  to  listen  to  the  ticking  of  a  watch ;  and  a 
faint  but  continuous  musical  sound  may  produce  the 
same  effect.  It  is  also  weU  known  that  monotonous 
action  on  the  hearing,  a  nurse's  lullaby,  the  noise  of 
the  wind,  the  reciting  of  prayers,  have  a  marked  eiSect 
in  producing  natural  sleep  in  many  people. 

It  likewise  occurred  to   us  to   produce  a  lethargic 


90  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

sleep  by  fatiguing  the  sense  of  smell  with  a  protracted 
odour  of  musk.  No  experiments  have  been  made  on 
the  sense  of  taste.  Tickling  of  the  pharynx  has  succeeded 
with  many  subjects,  but  in  this  case  it  may  be  from 
complex  reasons,  since  the  subject  nearly  always  fixes 
his  eyes  and  keeps  the  thorax  motionless. 

Some  facts  appear  to  indicate  that  an  excitement 
of  the  organs  of  the  senses  which  does  not  act  upon  their 
special  functions,  but  only  mechanically,  may  produce 
like  effects.  Thus,  when  the  eyeball  is  compressed 
through  the  closed  lid,  which  was  often  done  by  Lasegue, 
hypnosis  may  be  produced  in  some  subjects,  and  a  like 
effect  may  be  produced  by  pressure  on  the  external  meatus 
of  the  ear.  These  modes  of  hypnotization  belong,  as  we 
think,  to  the  group  of  those  which  act  by  exhaustion  of 
the  special  senses.  In  fact,  a  pressure  on  the  eyeball, 
however  slight,  produces  irritation  at  the  base  of  the 
eye,  whence  there  follows  a  sensation  of  light.  When 
the  external  orifice  of  the  ear  is  compressed,  there  is  a 
pressure  on  the  membrane  of  the  tympanum  by  means 
of  the  air  contained  in  the  tube,  and  it  may  easily  be 
shown  that  this  causes  a  continuous  murmur,  which 
fatigues  the  sense  of  hearing,  so  that  in  this  case  also 
sleep  results  from  exhaustion. 

The  hypnotizing  processes  in  which  a  method  in- 
volving contact  with  the  skin  is  necessary,  are,  however, 
susceptible  of  more  than  one  interpretation.  We  know 
that  magnetizers  formerly  made  use  of  what  are  termed 
passes;  these  passes  consist  in  lightly  touching  the 
subject,  either  directly,  or  indirectly,  through  his  clothes, 
and  a  prolonged  repetition  of  these  gestures  produces 
sleep.     Ch.  Richet  has  ascertained  that  a  gentle  excite- 


THE  MODES  OF  PRODUCING  HYPNOSIS.  91 

ment  of  the  skin  may  produce  the  somnambulist  sleep  as 
well  as  the  excitement  of  the  special  senses  ;  yet  it  may 
be  assumed  that  the  success  of  the  passes  is  greatly  due 
to  the  psychical  element. 

We  must  note  one  interesting  point  in  the  history 
of  hypnotizing  processes,  by  means  of  irritation  of  the 
skin.  On  looking  over  the  writings  of  magnetizers  in 
the  first  half  of  the  century,  we  are  struck  by  the  re- 
currence of  certain  gestures  which  contributed  to  dis- 
credit animal  magnetism.  It  appears  that  the  experi- 
menter often  caused  his  subject  to  sit  down  opposite  to 
him,  pressed  his  or  her  knees  within  his  own,  grasped 
the  thumbs  with  his  hands,  and  sometimes  applied  his 
forehead  to  that  of  the  subject  of  experiment.  These 
gestures,  which  appeared  to  be  indecent,  and  unnecessary 
for  the  purpose  he  wished  to  effect,  were  in  fact  founded 
on  accurate  observations,  which  have  since  been  verified. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  when  the  scalp  of 
hypnotized  subjects  is  slightly  irritated,  the  character  of 
the  sleep  is  changed.  Thus,  individuals  plunged  in  the 
state  designated  by  Charcot  as  lethargic  or  cataleptic, 
may  be  made  to  pass  into  the  somnambulist  state  by  a 
slight  friction  in  the  region  of  the  scalp.  Heidenhain, 
Griitzner,  and  Berger,  by  slight  and  prolonged  friction  on 
one  side  of  the  heads  of  subjects  in  the  waking  state, 
have  produced  in  them  a  unilateral  hypnosis,  displayed 
by  an  excessive  muscular  excitability.  The  influence 
of  irritation  localized  in  certain  regions  has  recently  been 
well  described  by  Pitres,  who  has  shown  that  in  some 
subjects  there  are  zones  he  terms  hypnogenic,  sometimes 
superficial,  sometimes  deeply  seated,  and  that  even  a 
slight  irritation  of  these  zones  may  produce  hypnosis, 


92  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

or  occasionally  cause  it  to  cease.*  Such  zones  may  be 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  but  most  frequently  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  joints,  on  the  scalp,  and  especially 
on  the  forehead,  and  also  at  the  root  of  the  thumb.  The 
legitimate  observation  of  facts  therefore  justifies  the 
gestures  formerly  in  use,  and  we  must  not  hastily 
condemn  or  deny  that  which  we  do  not  understand. 

Irritation  of  the  skin  is  as  effectual  when  it  is  done 
with  a  feather,  or  some  other  inert  body,  as  with  the 
hand.  We  have  ascertained  that  the  sleep  may  be 
produced  in  several  instances  by  placing  a  magnet  close 
to  an  hypnogenic  zone.  We  have  also  observed  that  the 
subject  may  put  himself  to  sleep  by  pressing  on  such  a 
zone.  It  should  be  added  that  each  subject  may  display 
different  hypnotic  zones,  not  only  as  to  their  site,  but  as 
to  their  action;  lethargy,  catalepsy,  and  somnambulism 
may  result  in  their  several  forms  from  the  excitement  of 
one  or  other  of  these  zones. 

Heat  may  produce  the  same  effect  as  a  mechanical 
excitement  of  the  skin.  Berger  showed  that  he  could 
produce  hypnosis  by  holding  his  hot  hands  near  the  head 
of  a  person  in  a  natural  sleep  ;  the  heat  disengaged  from 
his  hands  produced  this  efiect,  for  when  he  wore  woollen 
gloves,  or  covered  the  sleeper's  head,  hypnotization  did 
not  occur.  Berger  also  obtained  like  effects  by  placing 
metal  plates,  moderately  heated,  near  the  heads  of  his 
subjects. 

An  excitement  which  is  not  felt  may  have  a  hypno- 
tizing effect,  since  consciousness  is  a  super-added  element, 
which  is  not  essential.  Thus  the  magnet,  which  acts 
as  a  peripheral  excitement,   may   hypnotize   a   subject 

*  A.  Pitres,  Ves  zones  hyst^rogenes  et  hypnogenes.     Bordeaux,  1885. 


THE  MODES  OF   PRODUCING  HYPNOSIS.  93 

without  his  perceiving  the  action  exerted  by  this  body- 
on  his  organism.  The  influence  of  the  magnet  on 
hypnosis  was  first  pointed  out  by  Landouzy,  in  1879, 
and  the  fact  was  afterwards  verified  by  Chambard,  and 
by  the  present  writers. 

Hypnotization  by  sensorial  excitement,  or  by  a 
physiological  process,  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  : — 

1.  By  excitement  of  the  sense  of  sight :  (a)  Strong 
and  sudden  excitement,  by  luminous  rays,  by  solar  or 
electric  light,  or  by  the  sudden  incandescence  of  a 
magnesium  wire ;  (6)  slight  and  prolonged  excitement, 
by  fixing  the  eyes  on  an  object,  brilliant  or  otherwise, 
which  is  placed  near  the  eyes,  and  somewhat  above  their 
level 

2.  By  excitement  of  the  sense  of  hearing :  (a)  Strong 
and  sudden  excitement,  by  a  gong,  by  copper  instru- 
ments, etc. ;  (h)  slight  and  prolonged  excitement,  by  the 
ticking  of  a  watch,  the  vibrations  of  a  tuning-fork,  or 
any  other  monotonous  sound. 

3.  By  excitement  of  the  senses  of  taste  and  smell. 

4.  By  excitement  of  the  sense  of  touch :  (a)  Strong 
and  sudden  excitement,  by  pressure  on  the  hypnogenic 
zones;  (6)  slight  and  prolonged  excitement,  by  passes, 
contact,  action  of  heat  or  of  the  magnet. 

These  several  physiological  processes  act  very  differ- 
ently on  different  subjects.  When  used  in  combination, 
their  effect  may  be  greater  or  more  rapid.  Although, 
as  Braid  has  shown,  the  operator's  personality  has  not 
the  importance  which  was  formerly  ascribed  to  it,  yet  it 
cannot  be  said  to  be  altogether  negative.  It  can  easily 
be  proved  that  some  experimenters  are  more  successful 
than   others,   at  any  rate   with    some   subjects.      This 


94  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

elective  phenomenon  is  not  unimportant,  and  is  perhaps 
partly  due  to  the  specific  heat,  smell,  etc. 

If  this  elective  affinity  exists  in  physiological  pro- 
cesses, it  is  much  more  manifest  in  those  processes  which 
are  psychical.  In  fact,  hypnosis  is  not  produced  only 
by  sensorial  and  peripheral  excitement ;  it  is  also  effected 
by  central  excitement,  that  is,  by  acting  on  the  imagi- 
nation. It  may  be  asserted  that,  whenever  the  subject 
is  warned  that  he  is  about  to  be  hypnotized,  his  mind 
contributes  to  the  success  of  the  operation,  and  the  sleep 
is  partly  due  to  psychical  action. 

The  Abbe  Faria,  who  induced  sleep  by  inthnation, 
has  clearly  shown  that  hypnosis  may  be  effected  by 
psychical  action.  His  process  consisted  in  desiring  the 
subject,  in  an  imperious  voice,  to-  go  to  sleep,  and  some- 
times, without  uttering  a  word,  a  commanding  gesture 
was  enough  to  effect  his  purpose,  Faria's  simple  process 
is  rarely  employed,  and  insinuation  is  often  substituted 
for  intimation.  *  Sleep  may,  for  instance,  be  induced  by 
telling  the  subject  that  he  is  sleepy  or  heavy,  that  his 
eyelids  are  closing,  that  he  does  not  hear,  nor  see,  etc.,  or 
— as  we  have  ourselves  observed — when  the  experimenter 
himself  feigns  to  sleep.  This  gentle  process  is  perfectly 
successful  with  subjects  who  have  previously  been 
hypnotized  in  other  ways,  and  it  succeeds  at  once  with 
predisposed  subjects,  who  have  been  under  a  course  of 
treatment,  and  who  feel  confidence  in  the  operator,  and 
in  the  result  of  the  operation.  It  is,  in  fact,  only  sugges- 
tion in  the  waking  state. 

This  suggestion  is  often  veiled  b}^  manoeuvres  which 
formerly  led  to  the  belief  that  it  was  possible  to  magne- 
tize from  a  distance.     A  susceptible  subject  could  be  put 


THE  MODES  OF  PRODUCING  HYPNOSIS.  95 

to  sleep  by  making  passes  through  a  door,  if  only  the 
subject  was  aware  that  a  magnetizer  was  present  with  that 
purpose  in  view.  This  experiment,  intended  to  show 
that  somnambulism  is  produced  by  a  fluid  which  escapes 
from  the  magnetizer's  body,  and  passes  through  opaque 
bodies,  simply  proves  that  the  subject's  fixed  idea  that 
he  is  being  hypnotized  is  enough  to  put  him  to  sleep, 
and  this  is  a  psychical  impression.  In  this  way  it  can 
be  explained  how  a  magnetizer  in  Paris  can  hypnotize 
one  of  his  subjects  in  the  country,  when  the  latter  ia 
aware  on  what  day  and  at  what  hour  the  operation  is  to 
begin;  and,  again,  how  some  subjects  are  hypnotized  by 
causing  them  to  touch  objects  to  which  magnetic  virtue 
has  been  openly  ascribed.  This  likewise  explains  the 
action  of  magnetized  water  and  magnetized  trees.  But 
the  most  striking  experiment  is  the  suggestion  of  sleep 
after  a  long  interval  of  time.  The  subject  is  assured, 
with  the  necessary  firmness  and  authority,  that  after  so 
many  days,  at  such  an  hour,  he  will  spontaneously  fall 
asleep.  On  the  day  appointed  and  at  the  given  hour  the 
suggestion  is  realized ;  the  subject  is  overcome  by  sleep 
in  the  midst  of  his  occupations,  and  in  whatever  place  he 
may  happen  to  be. 

Several  writers,  who  have  observed  the  power  of 
suggestion  as  an  hypnogenic  agent,  have  regarded  it  as 
universally  present.  Thus  Braid  asserts  that  the  imagi- 
nation of  the  subject  is  an  indispensable  element  in  the 
success  of  the  experiment ;  he  declares  that  the  most 
expert  hypnotizer  will  exert  himself  in  vain,  unless  the 
subject  is  aware  of  what  is  passing  and  surrenders  him- 
self, body  and  soul.  In  our  day,  some  authors  have 
maintained  that  the  expectant  attitude  was  the  cause  of 


96  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

all  hypnotic  plienomena,  as  well  as  of  the  phenomena  of 
metallotherapeutics.  Schneider  and  Berger  consider  that 
hypnosis  is  produced  by  a  unilateral  concentration  of 
the  attention.  These  assertions  are  too  absolute.  A 
whole  series  of  purely  physical  agents  exist,  which  prove 
that  sleep  can  be  induced  without  the  aid  of  the  subject's 
imagination,  against  his  will,  and  without  his  knowledge. 

We  will  mention,  in  conclusion,  some  of  the  experi- 
ments made  by  one  of  the  present  writers,*  which  confirm 
the  idea  already  suggested  by  Braid,  that  hypnosis  results 
from  the  exhaustion  of  the  cerebral  influx.  An  experi- 
mental proof  can  be  given  that  all  the  sensorial  excite- 
ments which  induce  hypnosis  act  by  exhaustion,  for  the 
first  effect  of  these  excitements  is  an  exao^o^eration  of  the 
motor  phenomena.  If  the  subject  is  made  to  hold  a  dyna- 
mograph  in  his  right  hand  in  such  a  way  as  to  exert 
no  pressure  on  it,  and  if  he  is  then  hypnotized,  it  can 
be  ascertained  that  a  motor  discharge  occurs  in  the  in- 
terval between  the  excitement  and  the  sleep.  There  is 
an  intense  pressure  of  the  fingers  on  the  dynamograph, 
and,  indeed,  the  movement  extends  to  all  the  muscles  of 
the  body.  It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  hypnogenic 
excitement  provokes  an  exhausting  activity. 

We  are  here  met  by  the  difficulty  that  the  theory  of 
exhaustion  does  not  explain  the  sleep  produced  by  sug- 
gestion. It  has  often  been  said  that  the  psychical 
element  in  hypnosis  vitiates  all  the  attempts  to  give 
a  physical  explanation  of  this  state.  While  admitting 
that  the  problem   is  difficult,  we   think  it   possible  to 

*  Ch.  Fere,  Inhthitwn  et  epuisement  (Soc.  de  Biologie,  May  7,  1886) ; 
Impuissance  et  pessimisme  (Revue  Philosophique,  July,  1886) ;  La  medicine 
d^ imagination  (Frogres  Medicale,  1886,  p.  717). 


THE  MODES   OF   PRODUCING   HYPNOSIS.  97 

reconcile  some  psychical  processes  of  hypnotization  with 
processes  due  to  exhaustion.  All  kinds  of  suggestion 
consist  in  making  one  idea  predominant  in  the  subject's 
mind ;  the  suggestion  of  sleep  is  included  in  this  category, 
and  hypnotization  is  effected  by  the  idea  of  sleep.  Re- 
peated experiments,  which  we  shall  afterwards  mention 
in  detail,  show  that  every  idea  is  an  image,  that  every 
image  recalls  an  anterior  sensation.  From  this  point  of 
view,  hypnotization  by  suggestion  consists  in  hypnotiza- 
tion by  physical  excitements,  not  actually  occurring,  but 
remembered.  In  confirmation  of  this  assertion,  we  give 
an  example  of  an  experiment  communicated  to  us  by 
Ballet.  The  suggestion  was  made  to  a  subject,  either  in 
her  waking  state  or  in  a  previous  sleep,  of  an  electric 
lamp,  shining  from  the  corner  of  the  room.  The  subject 
was  awake  and  conversing  tranquilly.  When  told  to 
look  in  the  corner  where  the  imaginary  lamp  was  placed, 
she  was  at  once  attacked  by  catalepsy,  just  as  if  the 
electric  ray  had  shone  upon  her  face.  Hallucination, 
that  is,  the  image  of  the  luminous  impression,  produced 
the  same  effect  as  the  actual  impression,  because  it  was 
recalled  to  her  mind.  So  it  seems  probable  that  the 
suggestion  of  sleep  only  effects  its  purpose  by  inducing 
the  recollection  of  certain  impressions  of  fatigue  which 
involve  exhaustion  in  the  same  way  as  a  physical 
excitement. 

The  awakening  of  the  hypnotized  subject,  as  well  as 
his  hypnotization,  may  be  effected  by  two  different  pro- 
cesses— by  a  peripheral  impression,  or  by  a  central  and 
psychical  impression.  It  is  generally  enough,  in  order  to 
awaken  the  subject,  to  breathe  lightly  on  his  eyes  or  fore- 
head.    The  wind  from  a  pair  of  bellows  may  be  substi- 


98  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

tuted  without  inconvenience  for  breathing  from  the  mouth, 
or  a  few  drops  of  water  may  be  sprinkled  on  the  face. 
When  these  means  fail,  the  subject's  eyelids  are  opened, 
in  order  to  breathe  strongly  on  the  cornese.  And,  in 
the  case  of  hysterical  patients,  who  do  not  awake  under 
this  treatment,  pressure  is  applied  in  the  region  of  the 
ovarium.  Pitres  has  also  shown  the  existence  of  super- 
ficial zones  in  many  hysterical  subjects,  which  may  be 
excited  in  order  to  awaken  them.  It  is  very  probable 
that  they  might  be  awakened  by  addressing  special 
senses,  particularly  those  of  sight  and  hearing.  But 
nothing  certain  is  known  on  these  points.  If  the 
experimenter  breathes  on  one  half  of  the  forehead,  while 
sheltering  the  other  half  with  a  screen,  only  half  of  the 
body  is  awakened.  The  subject  may  also  be  awakened 
by  a  psychical  impression.  When  the  order  to  awake 
is  repeated  a  certain  number  of  times,  the  subject  awakes, 
just  as  he  goes  to  sleep  when  ordered  to  do  so. 

We  see  that  there  is  a  certain  parallelism  between 
the  causes  which  produce  hypnotism  and  those  which 
remove  it,  and  that  in  both  cases  it  is  done  by  excite- 
ment, whether  of  the  surface  of  the  skin,  or  of  the  special 
senses,  or  by  a  psychical  excitement.  This  relation  be- 
tween the  two  processes  is  still  more  marked  in  some 
hysterical  patients  in  whom  there  are  found  zones  en- 
dowed with  inverse  properties,  at  once  hypnogenic  and 
the  reverse.  When  the  patients  in  question  are  awakened, 
an  excitement  of  one  of  these  zones,  as  for  instance  on 
the  scalp,  hypnotizes  them,  and  an  excitement  of  the 
same  spot  awakens  them.  In  this  case  it  may  be  said 
that  the  same  cause  has  produced  contrary  effects,  de- 
pending on  the  physical  condition  of  the  subject  at  the 


THE  MODES  OF  PRODUCING  HYPNOSIS.  99 

moment  of  its  action.  But  this  is  not  a  general  rule. 
Some  zones  are  exclusively  hypnogenic;  others  are 
exclusively  the  reverse. 

If  there  are  numerous  ways  of  producing  hypnotism, 
their  efficacy  greatly  depends  upon  the  conditions.  The 
first  of  these  is  habit.  It  has  been  justly  observed  that 
the  first  attempt  to  hypnotize  a  subject  nearly  always 
fails,  and  that  it  almost  invariably  succeeds  when  the 
experiment  has  been  several  times  repeated.  It  is 
important  to  note  this  fact  of  hypnotic  education. 
Although  absolutely  no  efiect  may  be  obtained  at  the 
first  seance,  and  the  subject  may  declare  that  he  ex- 
perienced nothing,  yet  the  attempt  has  impressed  a 
permanent  modification  on  his  nervous  system,  which 
will  render  subsequent  attempts  more  easy.  At  first  the 
sleep  is  tardily  produced,  then  it  comes  in  a  few  minutes, 
next  in  a  few  moments,  and  finally  almost  instan- 
taneously. After  this,  the  subject  is  entirely  in  the 
magnetizer's  power.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that 
these  facts  are  the  expression  of  a  general  physiological 
law — the  law  of  repetition.  Numerous  psychometrical 
experiments  have  shown;  first,  that  when  an  act  is 
frequently  repeated,  with  sufficient  intervals  of  repose, 
each  series  of  repetition  is  accompanied  by  a  shortening 
of  the  period  of  reaction;  secondly,  that  this  period 
becomes  shorter  in  proportion  to  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  repetitions ;  thirdly,  that  it  is  finally  reduced 
to  its  lowest  limit. 

We  now  come  to  one  of  the  questions  most  disputed 
at  this  time  in  the  history  of  animal  magnetism,  namely, 
whether  every  individual  is  capable  of  hypnotization  by 
the  processes  of  which  we  have  given  a  general  account, 


100  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

or  if,  in  order  to  effect  the  result,  a  morbid  predisposition 
musj  exist  in  the  subject.  Is  there,  to  use  Ladame's  ex- 
pression, an  hypnotic  neurosis,  without  which  hypnotiza- 
tion  is  impossible,  and  are  nervous  diseases,  and  especially 
hysteria,  to  be  regarded  as  the  indispensable  predis- 
position ? 

We  have  already  said  that,  as  far  as  its  production  is 
concerned,  artificial  cannot  be  separated  from  natural 
sleep,  and  we  will  add  that  in  its  attenuated  forms  the 
one  does  not  differ  from  the  other  in  nature  and  character. 
We  readily  admit  that  artificial  sleep  may  be  produced 
in  any  subject  by  repeating,  varying,  and  sufficiently 
prolonging  the  attempts,  so  as  to  induce  fatigue.  Before 
asserting  that  this  result  is  impossible,  these  attempts 
should  be  made,  and  it  logically  rests  with  the  sceptics 
to  prove  a  negative.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  most 
nervous  patients,  and  especially  those  suffering  from 
hysteria,  are  distinctly  predisposed  to  the  hypnotic  sleep, 
and  that  it  differs  from  natural  sleep  by  special  physical 
characteristics. 

It  is  precisely  the  addition  of  such  characteristics 
which  constitutes  the  most  important  part  of  the  question, 
for  these  physical  phenomena  serve  as  the  indication  of 
the  extremely  complex  psychical  manifestations  which 
accompany  them. 

Up  to  this  time  it  has  been  asserted  that  physical 
phenomena,  impressing  a  special  character  on  the  sleep, 
have  only  been  observed  in  the  hypnotism  of  hysterical 
patients,  described  by  Charcot  and  Richer  under  the 
name  of  profound  hypnotism.  We  admit  that,  in  a  great 
majority  of  cases,  sufficient  exhaustion  to  cause  sleep  may 
be  artificially  induced.     But  the  following  point  remains 


THE  MODES  OF  PRODUCING  HYPNOSIS.  101 

open  to  discussion :  whether,  because  it  is  proved  that  an 
individual  is  artificially  put  to  sleep,  it  necessarily  follows 
that  this  is  a  special,  not  a  natural  sleep. 

Even  if  this  question  should  be  decided  in  the 
affirmative,  and  it  should  be  established  that  no  one 
is  absolutely  refractory  to  hypnotism,  we  should  feel 
justified  in  asserting  that  hypnotic  phenomena  consist 
in  a  disturbance  of  the  regular  functions  of  the  organism. 
As  Barth  lately  observed,  it  is  possible  to  give  every  one 
a  headache,  but  this  does  not  prove  that  a  headache  is  a 
physiological  state.  We  do  not  therefore  accept  the 
opinion  of  those  authors  who  treat  hypnosis  as  a  physio- 
logical state,  and  appear  more  anxious  to  separate  it  from 
other  forms  of  neurosis,  than  to  connect  it  with  them.* 

A  second  question  is  immediately  connected  with  the 
former,  namely,  whether  an  individual  susceptible  to 
hypnotism  can  be  hypnotized  without  his  consent,  and 
even  against  his  will.  Many  persons  are  agitated  by 
the  idea  that  a  stranger  may  influence  and  dispose  of 
them  as  if  they  were  mere  automata.  This  is  certainly 
dangerous  to  human  liberty,  and  it  is  a  danger  which 
increases  with  the  repetition  of  experiments.  When  a 
subject  has  been  frequently  hypnotized,  he  may  be  un- 
consciously hypnotized  in  several  ways :  first,  during  his 
natural  sleep,  by  a  slight  pressure  on  the  eyes ;  next,  in 
the  case  of  an  hysterical  patient,  by  surprising  her  when 
awake  by  some  strong  excitement,  such  as  the  sound  of 
a  gong,  an  electric  spark,  or  even  by  a  sudden  gesture. 
Some  curious  anecdotes  are  told  on  this  subject.     An 

*  Under  the  name  of  hypnoscope,  Ochorowiez  has  invented  an  instru- 
ment to  show  the  peculiar  sensitiveness  of  some  subjects  to  the  magnet. 
These  subjects  appear  to  be  also  more  easily  hypnotized. 


102  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

hysterical  patient  became  cataleptic  on  hearing  the  brass 
instraments  of  a  military  band ;  another  was  hypnotized 
by  the  barking  of  a  dog ;  another,  who  had  hypnogenic 
zones  on  her  legs,  fell  asleep  in  the  act  of  putting  on  her 
stockings.  Even  supposing  that  the  subject  knows  that 
he  is  to  be  hypnotized,  and  desires  to  resist,  this  resistance 
will  often  be  in  vain,  in  spite  of  his  urgent  protestations, 
and  he  will  soon  submit  to  the  authority  which  the 
experimenter  has  acquired  over  him.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, it  has  occurred  to  the  subject  that  he  will  not  sleep, 
and  then  the  experimenter  finds  himself  opposed  by  an 
idea  which  he  is  unable  to  modify ; — neither  the  gong  nor 
the  electric  light  produces  any  effect,  and  pressure  on  the 
eyes,  continued  for  hours,  only  brings  on  an  attack  of 
convulsions.  If  these  fixed  ideas  are  artificially  developed, 
they  form  an  almost  complete  obstacle  to  all  attempts  at 
hypnotization.  Of  this  the  patients  are  aware,  and  some- 
times, when  they  do  not  wish  to  be  hypnotized  by  a  given 
person,  they  cause  their  companions  to  hypnotize  and 
suggest  to  them.  Experimenters  sometimes  adopt  similar 
expedients;  and  the  caskets  and  talismans  which  have 
been  given  to  patients,  with  the  assurance  that  no  one 
can  hypnotize  them  while  they  carry  these  objects  about, 
must  be  regarded  as  simply  a  mode  of  suggestion. 

With  respect  to  persons  who  have  never  been  hjrpno- 
tized,  and  to  the  question  whether  they  can  successfully 
resist  the  forcible  attempt  to  put  them  to  sleep,  some 
authors  have  said  that  an  individual  can  prevent  any  one 
from  hypnotizing  him,  if  he  resists.  The  naivete  of  this 
assertion  reminds  us  of  those  philosophers  who  say,  "  I 
am  free  to  do  this  or  that,  if  I  wish  it"  Everything 
depends  on  whether  the  subject  can  exercise  resistance 


THE  MODES  OF  TRODUCING  HYPNOSIS.  103 

and  use  his  will  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  because 
moral  resistance  is  a  psychical  function,  it  is  found  to  an 
equal  degree  in  all  men.  On  the  contrary,  it  varies  with 
the  individual,  just  as  muscular  force  varies.  The  ques- 
tion does  not  therefore  admit  of  a  simple  answer.  In 
the  case  of  a  person  who  has  never  been  hypnotized,  and 
is  not  very  susceptible  to  hypnotism,  his  consent,  and 
even  his  good  will  are  very  necessary  for  the  success  of 
the  operation,  and  without  these  he  cannot  be  hypnotized. 
But  some  people  are  excessively  susceptible,  and  in  them 
the  resistance  is  necessarily  slight.  They  may  be  taken 
by  surprise  when  naturally  asleep  and  hypnotized  by 
pressure  on  the  eyes,  and  in  the  waking  state  they  may 
be  intimidated,  taken  by  surprise,  and  may  even  receive 
dangerous  suggestions  without  being  put  to  sleep.*  Such 
persons  should  guard  themselves  carefully,  since  the 
seriousness  of  the  danger  cannot  be  denied. 

*  In  confirmation  of  this  statement,  we  may  cite  the  well-known  story 
of  a  girl  hypnotized  by  a  beggar  called  Castellon.  She  left  her  father's 
house  in  order  to  follow  him,  although  regarding  him  with  terror  and 
disgust,  and  remained  in  his  power  for  four  days,  during  which  time  he 
outraged  his  unhappy  victim  several  times.  (Despine,  iHude  acientijique 
8ur  le  somnahulume.     1880.) 


104  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

SYMPTOMS   OF  HYPNOSIS. 

The  hypnotic  sleep,  by  whatever  processes  it  may  have 
been  effected,  is  displayed  under  very  different  aspects : 
sometimes  it  is  marked  by  distinct  physical  charac- 
teristics, and  is  then  designated  as  profound  hypnotism  ; 
at  other  times  it  does  not  differ  from  the  natural  sleep, 
and  it  is  then  termed  slight  hypnotism. 

Between  natural  sleep  and  the  most  profound 
hypnosis  it  is  possible  to  establish  an  unbroken  chain  of 
intermediate  states,  which  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to 
distinguish  from  each  other.  The  diversity  of  symptoms 
which  marks  the  gradation  of  hypnotic  states  accounts 
for  the  disputes  which  are  of  daily  occurrence,  and  which 
are  far  from  being  exhausted.  Each  observer,  who  con- 
scientiously describes  the  subject  before  him,  believes 
himself  to  be  in  possession  of  the  whole  truth,  and  allows 
himself  to  doubt  the  phenomena  which  he  does  not  find 
in  this  instance.  In  many  cases  he  even  denies  their 
existence,  thus  contributing  to  establish  an  absolute 
disbelief  in  those  who  do  not  observe  for  themselves. 

Without  attempting  a  critical  study  of  these  dis- 
crepancies, we  believe  that  they  may  be  ascribed  to  two 
chief  causes :  first,  the  different  states  of  the  patients  on 
whom  the  experiments  are  tried;  second,  the  variable 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  105 

nature  of  the  exciting  causes  of  hypnotic  phenomena  in 
these  patients.  If  the  Salpetriere  school  obtained  results 
which  do  not  only  agree  with  each  other,  but  with  those 
obtained  by  other  observers  (Tarnburini,  Seppili,  etc.),  it 
is  because  they  took  care  to  define  with  the  utmost 
accuracy  the  physical  conditions  of  their  subjects,  and 
the  nature  of  their  experimental  processes.  These  two 
points  include  the  whole  method  summed  up  by  Paul 
Richer*  in  the  following  propositions : — 

1.  To  choose  those  subjects  for  experiment  whose 
physiological  and  pathological  conditions  are  well  known 
to  resemble  each  other. 

2.  To  submit  the  different  experimental  conditions  to 
a  rigorous  law. 

3.  To  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  compound,  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown. 

4.  To  guard  carefully  against  simulation. 

5.  To  be  chiefly  occupied  with  simple  cases,  that  is, 
with  those  in  which  the  different  phenomena  appear  to 
be  most  distinct  and  isolated  from  each  other. 

6.  To  follow  the  method  of  nosologists  in  classing 
these  different  phenomena  in  natural  series,  so  as  to 
establish  several  subdivisions  in  the  great  group  of  facts 
collected  under  the  name  of  hypnotism. 

We  shall  in  our  description  accord  the  first  place  to 
hysterical  hypnosis,  which  is  entitled  to  serve  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  general  study  of  hypnotism,  not  only  on 
account  of  its  historic  importance,  but  on  account  of  its 
clearly  marked  divisions,  and  the  intensity  of  its  symp- 
toms.    We  shall  describe  separately  each  of  the  hypnotic 

*  P.  Richer,  Etudes  cliniqiies  sur  la  grande   hijstd'ne,  ou,  Hijst^ro- 
epilepsie,  p.  512,  2nd  edition.     1885. 


106  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

symptoms,  beginning  with  the  n euro-muscular  phenomena, 
whicii  are  manifested  by  more  objective,  and  to  some 
extent  more  palpable,  signs  than  the  others.  We  shall 
substitute  synthesis  for  analysis,  and  give  an  account  of 
the  different  nervous  states  designated  by  Charcot  under 
the  names  of  lethargy,  catalepsy,  and  somnambulism.  In 
order  to  do  this,  we  must  define  the  nature  of  these 
hypnotic  states,  which  have  been  the  subject  of  so 
much  discussion. 

Our  study  of  profound  hypnotism  will  be  succeeded 
by  that  of  its  slighter  forms;  we  shall  endeavour  to 
classify  all  these  different  states,  and  to  connect  them 
with  each  other,  so  as  to  show  how  the  phenomena  of 
hypnotism  are  allied  with  those  of  physiology.  We 
hold  that  hypnotism  should  not  be  considered  by  itself, 
nor  simply  as  a  matter  for  curiosity ;  it  is  chiefly  im- 
portant as  enabling  us  to  study  the  physiological  processes 
in  man,  and  especially  the  cerebral  functions,  and  it  is 
adapted  to  play  a  considerable  part  in  psychology. 

We  do  not  propose,  however,  like  some  German 
writers,  to  discuss  theories  on  the  mechanism  of  the 
nervous  sleep,  since  these  theories,  whether  physical, 
chemical,  or  physiological,  are  not  founded  on  solid  experi- 
ence, and  appear,  at  all  events  at  present,  to  constitute 
the  metaphysics  of  hypnosis.  We  shall  aim  at  giving  to 
the  ensuing  descriptions  a  purely  symptomatic  character. 

I.  Neuro-muscular  Hyperexcitability. 

Definition — Excitement  of  the  Muscles. — Charcot  and 
his  school  regard  this  important  phenomenon  as  the 
dominant  characteristic  of  lethargy. 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  107 

The  patient  in  a  lethargic  state  appears  to  be  in  the 
deepest  sleep;  the  eyes  are  closed,  or  half-closed,  the 
eyelids  quiver,  the  face  is  impassible  and  expressionless. 
The  body  is  perfectly  helpless ;  the  head  is  thrown  back ; 
the  limbs  hang  slackly  down,  and  if  they  are  raised  and 
again  dropped,  they  fall  heavily  back  into  the  same 
position. 

An  examination  of  the  muscles  shows,  however,  that 
they  have  acquired  the  property  of  contracting  under 
the  influence  of  a  direct  mechanical  excitement,  and 
even,  when  thus  contracted,  of  forming  a  contracture, 
that  is,  of  remaining  fixed  in  the  acquired  position.  To 
this  phenomenon  Charcot  gives  the  name  of  neuro- 
muscular hyperexcitability.*  It  may  be  produced 
by  very  simple  treatment.  For  instance,  on  kneading 
the  muscles  on  the  front  of  the  fore-arm,  the  limb  be- 
comes fixed  in  a  bent  position;  if  the  thenar  eminence 
is  excited,  the  thumb  turns  inward  on  the  palm  of  the 
hand.  If  the  muscles  of  the  face  are  excited,  those,  for 
instance,  which  connect  the  malar  bones  with  the  lips, 
the  latter  are  raised  upwards  and  outwards.  It  may  be 
said  that  all  the  striated  muscles  respond  to  mechanical 
excitement,  without  excepting  those  which  do  not 
usually  contract  under  the  influence  of  the  will,  like  the 
muscles  of  the  pinna  of  the  ear.  The  abdominal  and 
thoracic  muscles  form  no  exception  to  this  rule,  so  that 
it  is  imprudent  to  perform  experiments  of  this  kind 
on  hypnotized  patients  without  an  accurate  acquaint- 
ance with  anatomy  and  physiology.  Some  unskilful 
experimenters  have  produced  unpleasant  phenomena  by 

*  J.  P.  Charcot  and  P.  Kicher,  De  VhyperexcilahiliU  neuro-muscxdaire 

(ArcJiives  de  Neurologic,  1881-1882). 


108  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

simply  touching  the  larynx,  and  by  manipulating  the 
diaphragm. 

In  order  to  produce  a  lethargic  contracture,  a  me- 
chanical excitement  is  usually  required,  which  goes 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  skin,  and  either  acts  directly 
on  the  muscles,  on  the  tendons,  or  on  the  nerves. 

There  are  several  ways  of  applying  the  excitement ; 
in  most  cases  friction,  pressure,  a  shock,  and  massage  are 
equally  successful.  The  process  may  be  carried  out 
equally  well  with  the  hand  and  with  an  inert  body. 
The  application  of  a  magnet,  held  at  a  little  distance 
from  a  group  of  muscles,  produces  the  same  effect  as 
direct  mechanical  excitement,  but  with  more  energy 
and  diflusion.*  Finally,  the  degree  of  excitement  is 
important;  a  slight  excitement  produces  a  simple  con- 
traction, a  stronger  one  produces  a  contracture. 

Excitement  of  the  facial  muscles. — The  facial  muscles, 
during  the  lethargy  accompanied  by  neuro-muscular 
hyperexcitability,  are  differently  affected  from  the  other 
muscles  of  the  body.  Contraction  may  be  produced  by 
mechanically  exciting  the  nerve  which  animates  them, 
for  instance,  the  facial  nerve  as  it  issues  from  the 
parotid,  or  by  exciting  the  body  of  the  muscle  itself; 
but  this  contraction  does  not  become  permanent  con- 
tracture. It  generally  ceases  with  the  pressure,  and  if 
the  excitement  is  continued  for  some  time,  the  effect  is 
exhausted,  and  the  muscle  becomes  relaxed.  In  order 
to  fix  the  contraction  of  the  facial  muscles  during  the 
lethargy,  it  occurred  to  one  of  the  present  writers  to 
uncover  the  subject's  eyes  at  the  moment  when  contrac- 
tion had  been   effected.      The  subject  at  once  became 

♦  Tamburini  and  Seppili  Bivista  di  Freniatria,  p.  278,  1881. 


SYMPTOMS  O^  HYPNOSIS.  109 

cataleptic,  and  the  contraction  of  the  muscle  which  had 
been  excited  was  maintained  for  some  time. 

It  is  possible  to  cause  many  of  the  muscles  to  con- 
tract singly,  such  as  the  frontalis,  the  depressor  alse  nasi, 
and  the  triangularis  menti.  Several  muscles  may  also 
be  contracted  simultaneously,  so  as  to  produce  what  is 
termed  by  Duchenne  combined,  expressive  contractions. 
With  the  finorer,  or  with  a  slender  stick,  rounded  at  the 
end,  all  the  electric  experiments  performed  by  Duchenne 
on  subjects  in  the  waking  state,  may  be  reproduced  on 
the  face  of  a  subject  in  the  lethargic  state.  These  studies, 
carried  on  with  the  utmost  care  by  Charcot  and  Richer, 
afford  an  experimental  proof  of  the  part  taken  by  each 
muscle  in  the  expression  of  the  emotions.  In  fact, 
with  some  few  exceptions,  the  muscular  action  due  to 
hyperexcitability  is  strictly  localized  in  the  muscle 
which  has  been  directly  excited;  and  the  action  of 
this  muscle  does  not  induce  that  of  the  other  muscles 
which  are  habitually  associated  with  it,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce an  emotional  expression.  For  instance,  by  press- 
ing the  finger,  or  the  end  of  a  blunt  pencil  on  the 
zygomaticus  major,  an  isolated  contraction  of  this 
muscle  may  be  effected,  so  as  to  give  the  expression  of 
a  forced  laugh.  In  order  to  obtain  the  expression  of 
spontaneous  laughter,  the  inferior  half  of  the  orbicularis 
palpebrarum  must  be  simultaneously  excited.  Lastly, 
the  hyperexcitability  of  the  muscles  of  the  face  make  it 
possible  to  set  in  motion  those  muscles  which  are  not 
usually  subject  to  the  will,  such  as  those  of  the  pinna 
of  the  ear. 

The  contraction  of  the  muscles  is  not  only  produced 
by  acting  on  their  fleshy  body ;  the  mechanical  excite- 
6 


110  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

ment  of  their  tendons,  or  fibrous  extremities,  produces 
the  same  effect. 

Excitement  of  the  Tendons. — The  effect  of  exciting  the 
tendons  of  the  knee  is  particularly  marked.  If,  in  the 
case  of  a  normal  individual,  the  ligamentum  patellae  is 
struck,  a  contraction  of  the  quadriceps  femoris  takes 
place,  and  this  induces  a  slight  shock  in  the  limb,  to- 
gether with  an  extension  of  the  leg.  Hysterical  subjects 
frequently  present  in  their  waking  state  an  exaggera- 
tion of  this  tendon  reflex.  Bub  some  fresh  symptoms 
occur  in  the  artificial  lethargy  :  first,  a  diffusion  of  the 
reflex  action  which  is  displayed  in  the  shock  extending 
to  all  the  corresponding  half  of  the  body ;  and  next,  by 
a  marked  tendency  to  contracture. 

Excitement  of  the  Nerves. — The  mechanical  excitement 
of  the  peripheral  nerve-trunks  is  chiefly  interesting 
from  the  fact  that  it  produces  the  contracture  of  all 
the  muscles  to  which  the  excited  nerve  is  distributed. 
Hence  it  results  that  the  limb  subject  to  experiment 
assumes  a  characteristic  attitude,  which  is  determined 
by  the  special  distribution  of  the  branches  of  the  ex- 
cited nerve  to  the  muscles  of  that  region.  It  has  been 
said  that  neuro-rauscular  hyperexcitability  constitutes  an 
anatomical  demonstration  of  the  reality  of  the  nervous 
sleep;  it  is  at  any  rate  certain  that  this  phenomenon 
cannot  be  simulated,  even  by  those  subjects  who  are 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  anatomy. 

The  nerves  of  the  arm,  which  are  easily  accessible 
to  mechanical  excitement,  are  generally  chosen  to  demon- 
strate this  neuro-muscular  property  of  lethargy.  The 
ulnar  nerve  may  be  easily  reached,  in  the  region  of  the 
elbow  in  the  hoUow  between  the  olecranon  and  the  internal 


SYMPTOMS   OF  HYPNOSIS.  Ill 

condyle.  If  mechanical  pressure  is  exerted  by  the  finger 
on  this  point,  the  subject's  hand  becomes  contractured  in 
the  attitude  represented  in  Fig.  1. 


Fig,  1. — TJliiar  attitude.     (From  Charcot  and  "Richer.) 

The  fundamental  characteristics  of  this  attitude, 
which  presents  some  secondary  variations  in  different 
subjects,  are  the  flexion  of  the  ring  and  little  fingers, 
the  adduction  of  the  thumb,  the  extension  and  separa- 
tion of  the  index  and  middle  fingers.  Analysis  shows 
that  this  attitude  is  in  complete  accordance  with  our 
anatomical  and  physiological  knowledge.  On  the  one 
hand,  anatomy  teaches  us  the  distribution  of  the  ulnar 
nerve  in  the  fore-arm  and  the  hand ;  on  the  other, 
physiology  shows  the  partial  action  of  the  muscles  by 
means  of  the  ulnar  nerve.  By  combining  both  these 
data,  we  may  rigorously  infer  what  attitude  the  hand 
ought  to  take  under  the  combined  action  of  all  the 
muscles  brought  into  play.  The  attitude  deduced  by 
reasoning  precisely  agrees  with  the  attitude   produced 


112 


ANIMAL  MAaNETISM. 


during  lethargy  by  excitement  of  the  nerve.  The 
attitude  is  controlled  by  the  localized  faradisation. 
In  healthy  individuals  faradic  excitement  of  the  nervous 
trunks  gives  the  same  results  as  mechanical  excitement 
in  subjects  in  the  lethargic  state. 

The  median  attitude,  which  is  produced  by  exciting 
the  median  nerve,  which  extends  along  the  inner  edge 
of  the  biceps,  consists  in  a  contracture  which  causes  the 
flexion  of  all  the  segments  of  the  limb ;  the  fore-arm  is 


Fig.  2. — Median  attitude.  Fig.  3. 

(From  Charcot  and  Richer.) 


-Radial  attitude. 


raised  in  a  constrained  position,  the  wrist  is  bent,  and 
the  hand  closes  (Fig.  2). 

The  radial  attitude,  which  is  in  some  sort  the  con- 
verse of  the  preceding  one,  consists  in  the  supine  position 
of  the  fore-arm,  while  the  wrist  and  all  the  fingers  are 
extended.  This  attitude  is  produced  by  exciting  the 
radial  nerve,  where  it  issues  from  the  spiral  groove  of 
the  humerus  (Fig.  3). 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  113 

By  the  mechanical  excitement  of  the  spinal  nerve's, 
Berger  and  Heidenhain  were  able  to  produce  movements 
in  the  limbs  in  correspondence  with  them. 

We  have  one  remark  to  make  on  the  localization  of 
the  contracture  which  is  produced  by  exciting  the  nerve. 
In  the  case  of  the  ulnar  position,  the  hand  becomes 
stiffened  into  what  may  be  termed  a  sacerdotal  attitude. 
In  fact,  the  muscles  in  connection  with  the  ulnar  nerve 
are  not  the  only  ones  affected  ;  their  antagonists  also  are 
evidently  in  a  state  of  tension,  and  it  may  be  said  that 
all  the  muscles  of  the  hand  are  affected.  Yet  the  ulnar 
attitude  assumes  a  characteristic  form  which  enables  us 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  median  and  radial  attitudes 
which  we  have  described.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that, 
in  the  collective  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  hand,  it 
is  only  the  muscles  connected  with  the  ulnar  nerve 
which  give  a  characteristic  attitude  to  the  hand,  and 
the  other  muscles  only  come  into  play  in  order  to  keep 
the  hand  immovable  in  that  attitude  ;  their  contraction 
is  perhaps  due  to  the  excitement  which  affects  their 
fibres  in  consequence  of  their  sudden  extension. 

Galvanic  Excitement  of  the  Scalp. — The  phenomena 
produced  by  the  galvanic  excitement  of  the  scalp  of  a 
subject  in  the  state  of  lethargy  must  be  referred  to  an 
hyperexcitability  allied  to  that  which  is  neuro-muscular. 

Charcot  observed  that  the  application  of  a  galvanic 
current  to  the  cranial  arch  during  lethargy  produced 
strong  muscular  shocks  in  the  subject's  body.  The  posi- 
tive electrode  is  placed  on  the  scalp,  at  a  level  with 
the  motor  regions,  and  the  negative  electrode  is  placed 
on  the  sternum,  on  the  fore-part  of  the  head,  or  behind 
the  ear.     When  the  circuit  is  interrupted,  at  its  open- 


114  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

ing,  and  especially  at  its  closure,  a  distinct  shock  is 
produced  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body,  and  of  the 
face.  In  some  patients  the  shock  occurs  on  both  sides 
of  the  body,  with  a  marked  predominance  on  the  side 
to  which  the  electrodes  are  applied.  When  the  same 
experiment  is  performed  on  subjects  in  the  waking  state, 
variable  results  are  obtained.  In  some,  the  galvanic 
excitement  has  no  effect ;  in  others,  its  eflfects  are  the 
same  as  in  the  lethargic  state.* 

Character  of  the  Lethargic  Contracfure. — Lethargic 
contracture  presents  some  characters  which  clearly  dis- 
tinguish it  from  a  voluntary  contraction,  and  make  it 
easy  to  ascertain  that  there  is  no  simulation  on  the 
part  of  the  subject. 

Experiments  have  been  performed  on  strong  and 
healthy  subjects,  who  voluntarily  assumed  attitudes 
resembling  those  of  lethargic  contracture,  and  the  com- 
parison furnished  the  following  results.  Under  the 
influence  of  a  continuous  traction,  the  contractured  limb 
of  a  lethargic  subject  gradually  relaxes,  just  like  the 
limb  which  is  voluntarily  stiflened.  •  So  far  the  re- 
semblance is  complete,  but  the  myographic  and  cardio- 
graphic  tracings  reveal  curious  differences.  In  the 
simulator,  the  trembling  of  the  limb  and  the  irregular 
breathing  soon  betray  that  the  effort  is  voluntary ;  in 
the  hj^pnotized  subject  the  respiratory  rhythm  does  not 
vary,  and  the  contractured  limb  is  slowly  relaxed,  with- 
out the  slightest  irregularity. 

Charcot  and  Richer  state  that  when,  during  lethargy, 
a  group  of  muscles  is  excited,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
limb  is  not  allowed  to  move  in  the  direction  of  the 
*  J,  M.  Charcot,  8ociet(fde  Biologie^  January  7  and  14,  1885, 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  116 

muscles  under  excitement,  this  excitement  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  antagonist  muscles.  For  instance,  if 
while  exciting  the  extensors  of  the  fingers  the  hand 
is  kept  half  bent,  its  flexion  is  accentuated  by  the  con- 
traction of  the  flexors,  although  the  excitement  was 
limited  to  the  extensors.  We  remarked  above  on  an 
analogous  fact;  the  attitude  due  to  a  lethargic  con- 
tracture depends  not  only  upon  the  muscles  which 
are  excited,  but  also  on  the  antagonistic  muscles.  It 
may  be  stated  as  a  rule  of  mo  tor- nerve  power,  that 
the  antagonist  shares  in  the  excitement  of  any  muscle 
whatever.  In  ordinary  circumstances,  this  contraction 
of  the  antagonist  has  only  a  regulating  function,  but 
it  may  become  preponderant  if  the  effect  of  the  direct 
contraction  is  in  any  way  arrested.* 

If  the  contracture  is  left  to  itself,  it  will  continue 
throughout  the  lethargy ;  in  some  subjects  the  transition 
to  another  phase  of  sleep,  or  the  awakening,  will  put  an 
end  to  the  contracture ;  in  others,  it  will  remain  for  an 
indefinite  time,  even  after  they  are  awake.  In  order 
to  put  an  end  to  it,  the  experimenter  must  in  this  case 
throw  the  subject  into  a  fresh  lethargy,  and  then  proceed 
to  excite  the  antagonistic  muscles. 

Friction  and  the  kneading  of  the  muscles  will,  in 
fact,  soon  relax  lethargic  contractures.  When  a  con- 
tracture of  the  flexors  has  been  produced,  the  excite- 
ment of  the  extensors  on  the  back  of  the  hand  will  soon 
cause  it  to  disappear.  If  the  sterno-mastoid  muscle 
has  been  excited,  so  as  to  produce  a  rotation  of  the 
head  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  excitement  of  the 
opposite  muscle  will  bring  back  the  head  to  its  original 

•  Charcot  and  Richer,  Brain,  October,  1885, 


116  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

position.  This  antagonistic  action  is  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics peculiar  to  contractures  of  the  lethargic  type. 

There  is  another  interesting  phenomenon  which 
should  not  be  omitted  in  the  history  of  neuro-muscular 
hyperexcitability.  Under  the  name  of  "a  paradoxical 
contraction,"  Westphal  has  described  the  following 
phenomenon  : — When  a  sudden  and  energetic  movement 
of  dorsal  flexion  is,  for  instance,  given  to  the  foot,  the 
anterior  tibial  muscle  contracts  so  as  to  produce  ad- 
duction and  a  certain  degree  of  dorsal  flexure  of  the 
foot,  which  remains  fixed  in  this  position.  Charcot 
shows  that  this  phenomenon  is  more  marked  in  hyper- 
excitable  patients.  If,  instead  of  abruptly  bending  the 
limb,  it  is  gently  placed  in  the  same  position,  and  the 
extensor  muscles  are  mechanically  excited,  the  limb 
remains  fixed  in  the  attitude  of  flexion.  The  excite- 
ment of  the  extensors  has  a  reflex  action  on  the  flexors 
to  which  they  respond  by  forming  a  contracture. 
Erlemeyer  makes  the  reasonable  suggestion  that  the 
term  "  contracture  by  antagonistic  distension  "  should 
be  substituted  for  that  of  "paradoxical  contraction." 
This  phenomenon,  which  is  most  marked  in  hysterical 
and  hyperexci table  subjects  in  the  state  of  lethargy, 
explains  why  some  of  these  subjects  retain  the  positions 
due  to  a  su'^den  effort,  as,  for  instance,  when  a  subject 
who  has  thrown  a  stone,  or  given  a  blow,  retains  his 
arm  in  contracture  in  that  })osition.* 

The  sesthesiogenic  action  on  lethargic  contracture 
must  be  briefly  noticed.  In  subjects  sensitive  to  the 
magnet,  the  transfer  of  unilateral  contractures  may  be 

*  Ch.    Fere,   La     Contraction   paradoxale    {Vrogres   Medical^    1884, 
p.  69). 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  117 

effected  by  means  of  this  agent ;  thus,  when  the  ulnar 
attitude  has  been  produced  in  the  right  hand,  and  a 
magnet  is  brought  close  to  the  subject's  fore-arm  when 
he  is  asleep,  and  even  when  he  is  awake,  both  his  hands 
become  agitated  with  slight,  jerking  movements ;  then 
the  contracture  of  the  right  hand  ceases,  and  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  left  hand,  without  losing  any  of  its  charac- 
teristics or  of  its  precise  localization.  Several  other  agents, 
such  as  a  vibrating  tuning-fork,  metals,  and  electricity 
in  all  its  forms,  may  be  used  to  effect  the  transfer.* 

Some  interesting  phenomena  are  allied  with  this 
last  experiment.  If  the  circulation  is  arrested  by  the 
circular  compression  of  a  limb  in  a  centripetal  direction, 
by  means  of  one  of  Esmarch's  elastic  bandages,  the  me- 
chanical excitement  of  the  limb  thus  rendered  anaemic 
does  not  produce  contracture,  or  rather,  it  produces  a 
latent  contracture,  of  which  there  is  no  external  sign,  but 
which  is  manifested  when  the.  circulation  returns.  In 
fact,  when  the  bandage  is  removed,  the  contracture  of  the 
limb  takes  place  in  proportion  as  its  colour  returns.f 
Again,  the  magnet  applied  to  the  anaemic  member 
transfers  the  contracture  to  the  sound  member,  in  which 
it  at  once  becomes  visible  (Cliarcot  and  Richer). 

We  have  observed  a  phenomenon  somewhat  allied 
to  the  one  just  cited.  When  a  lethargic  subject  is  placed 
under  the  influence  of  a  magnet,  and  the  subject's  hand 
or  arm  is  mechanically  excited,  the  contracture  does  not 
occur  in  the  muscle  which  is  directly  excited,  but  in  the 
corresponding  muscle  of  the  other  arm. 

*   K.  Vigoureux,  Metalloscope,  Metalloih^rapie  Eslhesiogenes  {Archives 
de  Neurologie,  1881). 

t  Bribsaud  et  Richet,  Fr ogres  Medical,  Nos.  23,  24,  1880. 


118  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

When  the  magnet  is  applied  to  a  bilateral  and 
symmetrical  contracture,  such  as  two  radial  or  ulnar 
attitudes,  it  does  not  produce  a  transfer,  but  another 
phenomenon,  for  which  we  have  suggested  the  term 
polarization.*  Under  the  magnetizing  influence,  both 
the  subject's  hands,  when  in  a  state  of  contracture, 
display  slight,  irregular,  and  rapid  oscillations,  succeeded 
by  more  extensive  movements,  then  by  actual  con- 
vulsions, and  finalty,  the  two  contractures  almost 
simultaneously  disappear. 

According  to  Tamburini  and  Seppili,  the  neuro- 
muscular hyperexcitability  of  a  limb  may  be  destroyed 
by  the  application  of  cold  water,  or  of  ice. 

Neuro-muscular  hyperexcitability,  like  other  patho- 
logical symptoms,  is  not  equally  developed  in  all  subjects. 
In  some  we  only  find  an  exaggeration  of  the  tendon 
reflex  with  no  tendency  to  contracture;  in  others  the 
contractures  may  be  displayed,  yet  without  any  precise 
localization.  Finally, — a  singular  fact,  which  shows  that 
in  some  subjects  the  waking  and  hypnotic  states  are 
closely  allied,  and  that  there  are  symptoms  common  to 
hysteria  and  hypnosis, — contractures  can  be  easily  pro- 
duced in  many  hysterical  patients  in  their  waking  state, 
either  •  by  kneading  the  muscles,  by  pressure  on  the 
nerves,  or  by  striking  the  tendons.  These  contractures 
in  the  waking  state  are,  indeed,  of  the  same  nature  as 
those  which  occur  during  lethargy,  since  they  yield  to 
the  excitement  of  the  antagonistic  muscles,  and  may  be 
transferred  by  the  magnet ;  they  are  occasionally  as 
intense  and  as  clearly  defined.  Several  writers — Charcot 
and  Richer,  Heidenhain,  Tamburini  and  Seppili,  Brissaud 
*  A.  Binet  et  Ch.  Fere,  La  Polarisation  psychique  (Jtevue  Philos.,  1885). 


SYMPTOMS   OF  HYPNOSIS.  119 

and  Richet* — have  observed  that  hyperexcitability  may 
contiuue  during  the  waking  state.  In  many  hysterical 
patients,  digital  pressure  on  the  nerves  will  produce  in 
the  waking  state  median,  radial,  and  ulnar  attitudes, 
identical  with  those  produced  in  the  state  of  lethargy, 
with  the  exception  that  they  are  sometimes  accompanied 
by  pain.  We  may  infer  from  these  facts,  at  any  rate  in 
the  case  of  some  subjects,  that  an  aptitude  for  contractures 
is  not  a  symptom  peculiar  to  lethargy,  and  cannot  prove 
the  reality  of  that  state. 

In  reply  to  an  inquiry  into  the  nature  of  the  con- 
tractures produced  by  muscular  hyperexcitability,  we 
should  connect  them  with  reflex  phenomena,  without, 
however,  claiming  to  throw  any  vivid  light  upon  the 
question.  Even  when  the  excitement  is  directly  applied 
to  the  centre  of  a  muscle,  the  contracture  which  ensues 
is  due  to  a  stimulus  which  has  followed  the  diastaUic 
arc  formed  by  the  afferent  nerves,  the  nerve-centres, 
and  the  efferent  nerves.  This  is  proved  by  the  inhibitory 
action  exerted  by  the  antagonist  muscles  on  the  con- 
tracture, even  when  they  are,  like  the  sterno- mastoid 
pair,  placed  on  either  side  of  the  median  line.  This 
kind  of  interference  can  only  be  produced  in  the  nerve- 
centres,  in  the  brain,  or  in  the  spinal  cord.  Some  of  the 
poisons  which  affect  the  central  nervous  system  may,  by 
suspending  its  action,  serve  to  show  the  part  taken  by 
the  nervous  centres  in  neuro-muscular  hyperexcitability. 
If  an  hypnotized  subject  is  made  to  inhale  ether  or 
chloroform,  the  moment  comes  when  all  traces  of  hyper- 
excitability disappear,  and  the  mechanical  excitement  of 
the  muscles  and  the  motor  nerves  ceases  to  take  effect. 

*  Fails  pour  servir  a   I'Histoire  des   Contractures  {Progres  Medical. 
No8.  19,  23,  24,  1880). 


120  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

Finally,  neuro-muscular  hyperexcitability  constitutes 
the  jaost  important  objective  characteristic  of  that 
hypnotic  state  which  is  termed  lethargy  ;  it  is  displayed 
by  an  exaggerated  reaction  to  mechanical  excitement 
applied  to  the  muscles,  the  nerves,  and  even  to  the 
nerve-centres.  It  cannot,  however,  be  doubted  that  the 
same  reactions  may  be  produced  on  some  subjects  in  the 
state  of  lethargy  under  the  influence  of  superficial  excite- 
ment of  the  skin,  or  of  bones  in  the  region  of  muscular 
insertions.  It  need  not  astonish  us  to  find  them  occasion- 
ally in  other  hypnotic  states.  We  have  already  observed 
that  neuro-muscular  hyperexcitability  is  displayed  in 
some  hysterical  patients  when  not  under  the  influence  of 
hypnotism.  In  a  slight  degree,  that  is,  when  it  is  reduced 
to  a  simple  exaggeration  of  normal  reflex  action,  neuro- 
muscular hyperexcitability  belongs  to  other  pathological 
states  of  the  nervous  system,  with  which  consequently 
it  is  necessary  to  be  acquainted,  in  order  that  we  may 
justly  estimate  the  value  of  this  phenomenon. 

II.  Cataleptic  Plasticity. 

Immobility  is  the  most  striking  feature  of  the 
cataleptic  state.  The  subject  maintains  all  the  attitudes 
given  to  his  limbs  and  his  body.  The  arms  can  be  raised 
or  bent  by  the  observer  with  great  ease,  since  they 
ofler  no  resistance.  The  eyes  are  wide  open,  the  gaze 
is  fixed,  and  the  countenance  is  expressionless.  These 
collective  phenomena  give  to  a  cataleptic  subject  an 
appearance  which  cannot  be  forgotten  when  once  it  has 
been  seen. 

These  attitudes  cannot  be  maintained  for  an  indefinite 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS. 


121 


time,  as  some  authors  have  asserted.  A  cataleptic  subject 
camiot  remain  in  a  constrained  position  for  more  than 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  a  strone:  man  miojht  do  as 
much.  The  distinctive  character  of  the  cataleptic  attitudes 
must  be  sought  elsewhere. 

If,  in  a  case  of  true  catalepsy,  a  tambour  is  applied  to 
the  extended  arm  to  register  its  slightest  oscillations,  and 
a  pneumatograph  to  the  chest,  to  obtain  the  curve  of  the 
respiratory  movements  (Fig.  4),  the  following  facts  may 


Fig.  4. — Plan  of  arrangements  for  experiraents  in  fataleptif  immohility. 
R,  Marey's  tambour ;  P,  Pneumatograph ;  C,  Revolving  cylinder  ; 
T  T,  Tambours  with  lever.  (Charcot,  Legons  sur  les  maladies  du 
systeme  nerveux,  vol.  iii.) 


be  ascertained  : — the  cataleptic  limb  does  not  tremble  ; 
it  drops  slowly  and  gently,  and  the  style  of  Marey's 
apparatus  traces  on  the  cylinder  a  perfectly  regular 
straight  line  (Fig.  5,  II).     At  the  same  time  the  respira- 


122 


ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 


tory    tracing    maintains    the    same    calm    and    normal 
character  throughout  the  experiment  (Fig.  5,  I).     On  the 


Fig.  5. — Plau  of  tracings  obtained  from  an  hystero-epileptic  patient  in  a 
state  of  hypnotic  catalepsy  (Charcot).  I,  Tracings  of  the  respiration  ; 
II,  Tracings  of  the  oscillation  of  the  limb. 

other  hand,  an  individual  who  voluntarily  attempts  to 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS. 


123 


maintain  such  an  attitude  soon  becomes   fatigued,   his 
hand    trembles    (Fig.    6,  II) ;     his   breathing,    calm    at 


VI  r 


^  r    \ 


\ 


. -^VWw 


y|wvrt<*ww.f^ — ^^w^JJI^l^-iiij^^ 


nii.i.      /li^  iH 


Fig.  6. — Plan  of  tracings  obtained  from  a  man  who  attempted  to  maintain 
the  cataleptic  attitude  (Charcot).  I,  Tracings  of  the  respiration; 
II,  Tracings  of  the  oscillations  of  the  exti  nded  limb. 

first,  becomes    hurried  and   irregular    (Fig.  6,   I).     The 


124  ANIMAL  magnp:tism. 

tracings  show  abrupt  oscillations,  which  betray  muscular 
fatigUvi,  and  the  efforts  intended  to  conceal  it. 

The  Salpetriere  experimenters  have  endeavoured  to 
define  the  characteristics  of  true  catalepsy,  in  opposition 
to  the  false  catalepsy,  or  catalepsoid  states,  which  may 
be  met  with  in  other  phases  of  hypnotism.  If  the  limb 
of  a  patient  in  a  state  of  lethargy  or  somnambulism  is 
raised  and  held  up  for  a  few  moments,  it  will  remain  in 
the  position  in  which  it  has  been  placed.  At  first  sight, 
this  might  be  called  catalepsy,  but  the  truth  is  that  the 
muscles  of  the  arm  were  excited  by  this  process,  and 
they  have  formed  a  contracture  in  situ.  The  limb  is 
contractured,  not  cataleptic ;  friction  and  massage  will 
at  once  cause  the  muscles  to  relax.  Besides,  a  certain 
resistance  is  offered  to  a  change  of  attitude,  and  neither 
of  these  characteristics  belong  to  true  catalepsy. 

We  do  not,  in  fact,  in  profound  hypnotism,  meet  with 
contractures  during  catalepsy.  If  a  prolonged  pressure 
is  exerted  on  the  muscles,  nerves,  or  tendons,  only  a 
relaxation  of  the  muscles  takes  place,  which  is  followed  by 
paralysis.  Richer  has  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
cataleptic  paralysis.  He  shows  that  the  paralyzed  muscle 
loses  its  elasticity  and  becomes  elongated,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  opposing  muscles  becomes  preponderant. 
For  this  reason,  when  the  flexors  are  excited,  the  limb  is 
extended.  The  cataleptic  attitude  is  therefore  the  exact 
contrary  of  the  lethargic  attitude  produced  by  the  excite- 
ment of  the  same  motor  point.  As,  however,  there  is  no 
contracture,  the  new  attitude  is  not  maintained  with  any 
rigidity.  Localized  faradization  rapidly  puts  an  end  to 
cataleptic  paralysis,  if  it  should  continue  after  sleep  is 
oyer.  It  is  modified  with  difficulty  by  excitement  of  the 
antagonists,  and  by  suggestion. 


SYMPTOMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  125 

The  magnet  and  other  sesthesiogenic  agents  may 
effect  the  transfer  of  cataleptic  attitudes.*  A  subject  is 
seated  near  a  table  on  which  a  magnet  is  placed ;  the 
left  elbow  rests  on  the  arm  of  the  chair,  the  fore-arm  and 
the  hand  are  raised  in  a  vertical  position,  the  thumb  and 
fore-finger  are  extended,  and  the  other  fingers  are  half 
bent.  The  right  fore-arm  and  hand  are  stretched  upon  the 
table ;  the  magnet  is  placed  at  a  distance  of  about  five  cen- 
timetres, covered  by  a  cloth.  At  the  end  of  two  minutes, 
the  right  fore-finger  becomes  tremulous  and  is  raised,  the 
extended  fingers  of  the  left  hand  become  flaccid,  and  so 
likewise  is  the  hand  for  an  instant.  The  right  hand  and 
fore-arm  are  raised  and  assume  the  original  position  of 
the  left  hand,  which  is  extended  on  the  arm  of  the  chair 
with  the  waxy  softness  peculiar  to  the  cataleptic  state. 

It  is  possible  to  limit  catalepsy  to  one  half  of  the 
body,  an  experiment  which  it  occurred  to  Descourtes  to 
try  at  the  Salpetri^re  in  ISTS.f  It  is  well  known'  that 
during  catalepsy  the  eyes  are  widely  opened,  and  that  the 
cataleptic  subject  falls  into  a  lethargy  if  they  are  closed. 
If  one  eye,  the  right,  for  example,  is  closed  while  the 
other  is  kept  open,  a  mixed  state  ensues ;  the  right  side 
continues  to  be  affected  by  catalepsy,  while  the  left 
acquires  all  the  characteristics  of  lethargy.  If  the  right 
arm  is  raised,  it  retains  the  position  given  to  it,  while 
the  left  arm  falls  heavily  down  again.  Mechanical  ex- 
citement on  the  right  side  fails  to  produce  reflex  action, 
or  contracture,  while  excitement  on  the  left  side  imme- 
diately produces  an  intense  contracture. 

Catalepsy  may  also  be  combined  with  somnambulism, 

♦  Oh.  Fere  and  A.  Binet,  Soci^te  de  Biologie,  July  5,  1885. 
t  Progres  Medical,  December  21,  1878. 


126  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

by  first  throwing  the  subject  into  a  lethargy,  and  then 
acting  on  one  side  of  the  scalp,  while  opening  the  eye 
on  the  other  side.* 

The  magnet  produces  the  transfer  of  all  these  divided 
states.  The  transfer  of  hemi-catalepsy,  associated  with 
hemi-lethargy,  presents  a  special  feature :  at  the  end  of 
the  experiment,  the  eye  remains  open  on  the  side  which 
has  become  lethargic,  and  conversely,  the  eye  remains 
closed  on  the  side  which  has  become  cataleptic.  Thus, 
in  the  case  of  a  typical  subject,  this  mode  of  transfer 
enables  us  to  obtain  a  hemi-catalepsy  with  the  eye 
closed,  and  a  hemi-lethargy  with  the  eye  open.t 

Cataleptic  attitudes  display  a  certain  number  of 
characteristics  to  which  we  shall  revert  when  we  come 
to  describe  suggestions.  Braid  was  the  first  to  point  out 
that  there  is  a  constant  agreement  between  the  attitude 
of  the  body  and  the  expression  of  the  countenance.  The 
alternation  which  exists  in  catalepsy  between  the  atti- 
tudes and  the  intellectual  manifestations  should  also  be 
noted.  When,  for  instance,  a  cataleptic  subject  receives 
an  hallucination,  the  fixed  attitudes,  artificially  impressed 
on  a  limb,  give  place  to  complex  and  perfectly  co-ordi- 
nated movements,  corresponding  with  the  object  of  the 
suggestion.  The  subject  resembles  a  statue,  endowed 
with  animation ;  presently  the  suggestion  is  exhausted, 
the  hallucination  loses  its  force,  and  the  subject,  if  left 
to  himself,  again  becomes  immovable  in  a  cataleptic 
attitude.  This  sort  of  oscillation  between  psychical  and 
motor  disturbance  is  peculiar  to  catalepsy. 

•  Dumontpallier  and  Magnin,  Soci^cfde  Biologie,  1882,  p.  147. 
I  Ch.  t¥re  aud  A.  Biuet,  Soci^l^de  Biologie^  July  5,  1884. 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  127 

III    CUTANO- MUSCULAR   HyPEREXCIT ABILITY. 

We  have  seen  that  during  lethargy  strong  con- 
tractures may  be  produced  by  the  mechanical  excite- 
ment of  the  nerves,  of  the  tendons,  or  of  the  bodies  of  the 
muscles  themselves,  and  sometimes  also  by  the  excitement 
of  the  skin.  In  the  state  of  somnambulism,  as  it  is  pro- 
duced in  hysterical  subjects,  we  find  a  contracture  which 
seems  to  be  of  a  different  kind ;  it  differs  both  in  the 
mode  of  excitement  and  in  the  mode  of  its  relaxation. 

The  starting-point  for  the  contracture  of  somnam- 
bulism appears  to  be  in  the  skin,  which  acquires  an 
exquisite  sensibility ;  it  may  be  produced  by  making  use 
of  very  slight  superficial  excitements,  such  as  stroking, 
passing  the  hand  over  the  hairs  of  the  skin,  breathing 
from  the  mouth,  or  moving  the  hand  to  and  fro  at  a 
little  distance,  so  as  to  in^iuce  a  slight  current  of  air,  and 
perhaps  also  a  psychical  excitement.  This  is  different 
from  the  contracture  of  lethargy,  which  is  generally  the 
result  of  a  strong  excitement.  This  first  difference  in- 
volves a  second :  produced  by  a  diffused  cutaneous  excite- 
ment, the  contracture  of  somnambulism  is  itself  diffused, 
and  although  it  may  be  limited  to  one  segment  of  the 
limb,  there  is  none  of  what  may  be  called  the  anatomical 
localization  of  the  contracture  of  lethargy.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  observations  of  Heidenhain  and  Dumontpalliei 
show  that  it  gradually  overspreads  those  parts  which 
had  not  been  subject  to  the  excitement.  But  the  mode  of 
relaxation  offers  the  best  distinction  between  these  two 
species  of  contracture,  at  any  rate  in  the  typical  cases  of 
profound  hypnotism.  The  excitement  of  the  opposing 
muscles,  which  at  once  puts  an  end  to  the  contracture 


128  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

of  hypnotism,  has  no  eflfect  on  that  of  somnambulism  ;  it 
can  only  be  relaxed  by  renewing  for  a  few  moments  the 
cutaneous  excitement  which  produced  it.  Other  differ- 
ences have  been  noted,  but  they  are  less  constant  than 
those  given  above.  It  has  been  asserted  that  it  is  only 
the  contracture  of  lethargy  which  can  be  transferred  by 
the  magnet,  but  we  have  been  equally  successful  in  the 
transfer  of  the  contracture  of  somnambulism. 

The  aptitude  for  contracture  by  means  of  cutaneous 
excitement  is  generally  diffused  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  body.  But  it  is  possible  to  limit  it  to  a  definite 
region  by  exciting  the  scalp  in  different  ways.*  We 
shall  presently  see,  as  we  continue  our  description  of  the 
different  states,  that  when  a  subject  of  profound  hypno- 
tism is  in  a  lethargy  or  catalepsy,  friction  of  the  scalp 
will  cause  complete  somnambulism,  and  all  parts  of 
his  body  acquire  an  aptitude  for  cutaneous  contractures. 
A  lateral  friction,  limited  to  one  side  of  the  head,  will 
produce  hemi-somnambulism ;  restricted  to  the  corre- 
sponding side  of  the  body,  the  state  of  the  other  half 
of  the  body  remains  unchanged.  Thus  we  have  a 
hemi-somnambulism,  allied  with  hemi-lethargy,  or  hemi- 
catalepsy.  If,  again,  instead  of  applying  the  friction 
to  the  whole  of  the  scalp,  a  strong  pressure  is  exerted 
with  the  finger,  or  some  blunt  instrument,  on  certain 
points  of  the  hairy  scalp  which  seem  to  correspond 
with  the  motor  centres,  it  is  possible  to  effect  the 
partial  somnambulism  of  the  limb  to  which  the  motor 
centre  affected  appears  to  belong.  In  this  way  it  is 
possible  to  effect  the  isolated  somnambulism  of  one  half 
of  the  face,  one  arm,  one  leg,  both  arms,  both  legs,  and  of 
*  Ch.  Fere  and  A.  Binet,  SocieUde  Biologie,  July  19, 1884. 


SYMFTOMS   OF  HYPNOSIS.  129 

the  whole  face.  It  is  even  possible  to  produce  the  isolated 
somnambulism  of  the  upper  part  of  the  face,  by  exciting 
a  point  of  the  scalp  situated  above  the  horizontal  line 
which  would  pass  through  the  eyebrows,  and  behind 
a  vertical  line  which  would  pass  at  the  back  of  the 
mastoid  process,  etc.  The  isolated  and  successive  ex- 
citement of  these  different  points  produces  a  generalized, 
partial  state  of  somnambulism,  in  which  the  subject 
speaks,  hears,  and  is  receptive  of  hallucinations. 

The  rigorousness  of  these  experiments  secures  them 
from  fraud,  for  they  involve  the  local  disappearance  of 
the  phenomenon  of  neuro-muscular  hyperexcitability 
which  is  peculiar  to  lethargy.  This  is  not  a  phenomenon 
capable  of  imitation  ;  the  subject  can  neither  produce  nor 
suppress  it  at  pleasure.  We  think  it  is  impossible  to 
explain  these  experiments,  and  to  decide  if  they  are  a  con- 
firmation  of  cerebral  localization,  or  if  it  is  to  be  explained 
by  the  existence  of  reflexogenic  zones.  The  latter  inter- 
pretation appears  to  us  to  be  the  most  probable. 

We  find,  in  fact,  that  in  hysterical  hypnotized  subjects 
there  are  several  zones  in  which  excitement  produces 
reflex  action :  first,  the  hysterogenic  zones,  on  which 
the  pressure  produces  an  attack  of  hysteria,  which  is 
arrested  when  that  pressure  is  removed ;  *  next,  the 
hypnogenic  zones,  distinct  from  the  former  in  their 
position  and  effects  ;  the  excitement  of  these  produces,  or 
in  some  cases  modifies  and  even  puts  an  end  to,  the 
hypnotic  sleep.  Then  come  the  dynamogenic  zones, 
pointed  out  for  the  first  time  by  one  of  the  present 
writers ;  i*  the  excitement  of  these  produces  a  momentary 

*  Charoot,  Maladies  du  Systeme  nerveux^  vol.  i. 

t  Ch.  Fere,  Sensation  et  Mouvement  (^Bevue  Fhiloso'pMque.  1886)l 


130  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

exaggeration  of  muscular  force,  which  may  be  measured 
by  the  dynamometer.  There  are  also  erogenic  zones,  of 
which  we  shall  speak  presently.  Finally,  Heidenhain, 
Born,  Dumontpallier,  and  Magnin  have  described  the  re- 
fiexogenic  zones,  which,  when  excited  in  hypnotic  subjects, 
produce  motor  phenomena,  in  places  more  or  less  distant 
from  that  point  on  the  skin  which  has  been  excited.  In 
some  of  Heidenhain's  subjects,  pulling  the  skin  of  the  nape 
of  the  neck,  in  the  region  of  the  cervical  vertebrae,  produced 
by  reflex  action  a  sonorous  respiration,  or  groan ;  in  this 
way  the  celebrated  experiment  performed  by  Goltz  on 
frogs  is  repeated  on  the  human  subject.  Dumontpallier, 
by  exciting  the  skin  of  the  hairy  scalp,  produced  direct 
or  complex  movements,  in  correspondence  with  the  motor 
centres  excited  by  him.  All  these  experiments  show 
that  in  the  hypnotized  subject  many  points  of  the  body, 
and  especially  those  of  the  hairy  scalp,  are  in  a  state 
of  hyperexcitability.  It  would  be  imprudent  to  go 
beyond  this  simple  assertion. 

IV.  Disturbance  of  the  Breathing  and  of  the 
Circulation. 

When  a  subject  is  put  to  sleep  by  a  slow  and  pro- 
longed process,  as  for  instance  by  fixity  of  gaze,  it  may 
be  observed  that  after  a  while  the  breathing  is  quickeiied; 
then,  at  the  moment  when  sleep  comes  on,  a  peculiar 
sound  is  often  heard  in  the  larynx.  Tamburini  and 
Seppili  have  applied  the  graphic  methods  of  modern 
physiology  to  the  study  of  the  respiration  and  the 
circulation.*     The  results  to  which  they  have  arrived  by 

♦  Rivista   sperimentale  di  /reniatria,  No.  3,  Series   vii. ;  Nos.    3,  4, 
Series  viii. 


SYMPTOMS   OF  HYPNOSIS.  131 

these  methods  are  in  perfect  agreement  with  those  made 
at  the  Salpetriere  at  about  the  same  time. 

During  the  state  of  lethargy,  the  respiratory  curve  is 
fairly  regular ;  its  movements  are  usually  slow  and  deep  ; 
in  short,  the  respiration  does  not  essentially  differ  from 
what  it  is  in  the  normal  state.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  state  of  somnambulism.  The  only  characteristic 
peculiar  to  hypnotism  appears  to  be  a  certain  disconnec- 
tion, or  even  a  true  antagonism  between  the  thoracic  and 
abdominal  respiration. 

In  catalepsy,  however,  there  is  a  considerable  modifica- 


Fig.  7.— Respiratory  tracing.    L,  during  lethargy;  G,  during  catalepsy. 
(Tamburini  and  Seppili.) 

tion  in  the  mode  of  breathing.  The  movements  are  in- 
frequent, superficial,  and  extremely  slow,  and  separated 
by  a  longer  or  shorter  interval  of  complete  immobility. 
In  the  subjoined  figure  (Fig.  7),  the  widel}'-  different 
tracings  afforded  by  catalepsy  and  lethargy  may  be 
compared. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  application  of  a  magnet 
to  the  subject's  epigastrum  produced  profound  modifica- 


132  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

tions  in  the  respiratory  curve  of  lethargy ;  in  catalepsy, 
on  tha  contrary,  the  curve  was  scarcely  affected  by  the 
magnet.  The  subjoined  figure  (Fig.  8),  which  we  owe  to 
Tamburini  and  Seppili,  who  performed  the  experiment, 
accurately  represents   these  two  contrary   etfects.      The 


Fig.  8 —Respiratory  tracing.  L,  curve  of  lethargy  ;  M  +  ,  the  mnguet  is 
approached  to  the  thorax;  C,  catalepsy  is  produced;  L,  lethargy  is 
produced;  M  — ,  the  magnet  is  withdrawn. 

subject  is  placed  in  the  state  of  lethargy;  after  a  few 
regular  respirations  the  approach  of  the  magnet  induces 
a  strong  movement  of  expiration,  then  of  inspiration ; 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  133 

catalepsy  is  then  produced  by  opening  the  subj  ect's  e^^es, 
and  the  shallow  breathing  peculiar  to  this  state  is  at  once 
displayed.  Soon  afterwards  the  eyes  are  again  closed, 
and  lethargy  is  produced ;  another  deep  expiration, 
followed  by  a  deep  inspiration,  takes  place,  owing  to  the 
unchanged  position  of  the  magnet,  and  if  this  is  removed, 
the  curve  of  lethargy  reverts  to  its  normal  type. 

The  researches  made  by  Tamburini  and  Seppili  on 
the  circulation  are  no  less  interesting.  By  means  of 
Mosso's  plethysmograph,  and  the  air-sphygmograph,  they 
ascertained  that  in  the  state  of  lethargy  the  graphic 
tracing  shows  a  constant  tendency  to  rise,  and  that  when 
catalepsy  is  produced,  it  again  descends  gradually.  In 
other  words,  lethargy  increases  the  volume  of  the  fore- 
arm, that  is,  causes  the  vessels  to  dilate;  catalepsy,  on 
the  other  hand,  diminishes  the  volume  of  the  fore-arm, 
or  causes  the  vessels  to  contract.  Tamburini  and 
Seppili's  experiments  were  repeated  by  one  of  the 
present  writers,  and  although  the  results  obtained  were 
not  absolutely  corroborative,  yet  they  showed  that  modi- 
fications took  place  in  the  peripheral  circulation  which 
appeared  to  be  wholly  independent  of  the  subject's  will. 

We  have  dwelt  long  upon  the  neuro-muscular  pro- 
perties of  hypnotism,  because  the  Salpetriere  school 
considers  that  these  phenomena  display  physical  signs 
which  irresistibly  prove  the  sincerity  of  the  experiments. 
The  precise  localization  of  the  lethargic  contracture  in 
the  muscles  supplied  by  the  branches  of  the  nerve 
which  has  been  excited;  the  maintenance  of  the  cataleptic 
attitudes  without  trembling  ov  fatigue;  the  effects  of  a 
continuous  traction  on  the  contractures  of  lethargy 
and  somnambulism;  the  limitation  of  each  of  these  phe- 
7 


134  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

nomena  to  one  half  of  the  body ;  their  mode  of  appear- 
ance and  disappearance — all  these  signs  serve  as  so 
many  guarantees  against  simulation.  On  this  point  the 
demonstration  is  complete.  It  is  almost  certain  that  no 
individual  in  the  waking  state,  unless  affected  by  a 
nervous  state  allied  to  hypnotism,  could  imitate  the 
distinctive  physical  signs  by  which  profound  hypnotism  is 
manifested.  The  dread  of  simulation,  which  dominated 
the  whole  history  of  animal  magnetism,  has  now  become 
a  completely  imaginary  danger,  if  the  experimenter  is 
adroit  and  cautious. 


V.  Subjective  Symptoms. 

Up  to  this  time  the  modifications  produced  by  hypno- 
tism in  the  condition  of  the  senses,  and  of  the  intellectual 
functions,  have  not  been  the  subject  of  accurate  research. 
Some  isolated  observations  have  been  made,  which  are 
not  wholly  in  agreement  with  each  other,  and  no  general 
view  can  be  deduced  from  them.  In  order  to  obtain  a 
clue  to  the  labyrinth,  we  should  compare  hypnotic  sleep 
with  natural  sleep,  and  we  shall  see  that  the  psychical 
manifestations  of  hypnosis  present  a  strong  analogy  to 
the  faculty  of  dreaming. 

1.  The  state  of  the  senses,  in  hypnotic  subjects,  ranges 
from  anaesthesia  to  hypersesthesia.  During  lethargy  all 
the  senses  are  suspended,  with  the  occasional  exception 
of  the  sense  of  hearing,  which  is  sometimes  retained,  as 
it  is  in  natural  sleep.  During  catalepsy,  the  special 
senses  are  partially  awake ;  the  muscular  sense,  in 
particular,  retains  all  its  activity.  Finally,  in  somnam- 
bulism the  senses  are  not  merely  awake,  but  quickened 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  135 

to  an  extraordinary  degree.  Subjects  feel  the  cold  pro- 
duced by  breathing  from  the  mouth  at  a  distance  of 
several  yards  (Braid).  Weber's  compasses,  applied  to  the 
skin,  produce  a  twofold  sensation,  with  a  deviation 
of  3°  in  regions  where,  during  the  waking  state,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  give  the  instrument  a  deviation  of  18°. 
(Berger.)  The  activity  of  the  sense  of  sight  is  some- 
times so  great  that  the  range  of  sight  may  be  doubled, 
as  well  as  the  sharpness  of  vision.  The  sense  of  smell 
may  be  developed  so  that  the  subject  is  able  to  discover 
by  its  aid  the  fragments  of  a  visiting-card  which  had 
been  given  to  him  to  smell  before  it  was  torn  up 
(Taguet).  The  hearing  is  so  acute  that  a  conversa- 
tion carried  on  in  the  floor  below  may  be  overheard 
(Azam).  These  are  interesting  but  isolated  facts.  We 
are  still  without  any  collective  work  on  the  subject,  of 
which  it  would  be  easy  to  make  a  regular  study,  with 
the  methods  of  investigation  we  have  at  our  disposal. 

2.  More  careful  observations  of  the  state  of  the 
memory  have  been  made,  but  this  state  has  only  been 
studied  as  it  is  found  during  somnambulism,  when  it 
generally  displays  the  same  hyperexcitability  as  the  other 
organs  of  the  senses. 

The  contrast  between  the  memory  on  awaking  and 
the  memory  during  hypnotic  sleep  has  been  justly  re- 
marked. There  is  a  difference  between  the  two  phases 
of  memory ;  and  this,  indeed,  is  also  the  case  with 
natural  sleep.  The  hypnotized  subject  seldom  re- 
members, on  awaking,  the  events  which  occurred  during 
his  hypnotic  sleep.  On  the  other  hand,  when  he  is 
asleep  his  memory  embraces  all  the  facts  of  his  sleep, 
of  his  waking  state,  and  of  previous  hypnotic  sleeps. 


136  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

We  will  first  consider  the  hyperexcitability  of  the 
memory  which  occurs  in  somnambulism.  Richet  per- 
formed an  experiment  which  throws  a  strong  light  on 

this  strange  phenomenon.     "  After    hypnotizing  V 

I  recited  some  verses  to  her,  and  then  awoke  her.  She 
was  unable  to  remember  them.  I  hypnotized  her  again, 
and  she  remembered  the  lines  perfectly.  When  I  awoke 
her,  she  had  again  forgotten  them." 

The  memory  of  a  hypnotized  subject  has  a  wide 
range — much  wider  than  it  has  at  other  times.  Frequent 
instances  of  this  extraordinary  memory  have  been  given, 
so  surprising  as  sometimes  to  lead  to  the  belief  that  the 
subjects  were  endowed  with  a  mysterious  lucidity. 
Richet  remarks  that  somnambulists  describe  with 
minute  details  places  which  they  have  formerly  visited, 
or  facts  which  they  have  witnessed.  In  one  instance,  a 
hypnotized  subject  sang  the  air  of  the  second  act  of 
VAfricaine,  of  which  she  could  not  remember  a  note  after 
she  awoke.  Beaunis  cites  the  case  of  a  subject  whom 
he  induced  during  sleep  to  tell  him  all  that  she  had 
eaten  on  the  day,  or  two  days  before,  without  omitting  a 
single  item.  When  she  awoke,  he  recounted  the  7)ienu 
of  her  dinner,  and  she  was  astonished  to  find  him  so  well 
informed.  We  have  been  able  to  make  a  hypnotized 
subject  give  the  menus  of  dinners  she  had  eaten  a  week 
before.  Her  normal  memory  did  not  extend  beyond  three 
or  four  days,  and  in  order  to  cause  her  to  exceed  this 
limit,  it  was  necessary  to  use  the  excitement  of  the 
magnet. 

We  give  one  more  instance,  well  calculated  to  display 
the  acute  memory  of  somnambulists.  A  girl,  in  a  state 
of  somnambulism,  was  in  Charcot's  room  at  the  Salpe- 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  137 

tri^re  when  Parrot  entered,  the  physician  to  the  refuge 
for  Enfants  assistes.  The  subject  was  asked  what  was  the 
stranger's  name,  and  she  replied,  to  the  surprise  of  all 
present,  and  without  hesitation,  "M.  Parrot."  On  awaking 
she  declared  that  she  did  not  know  him;  but,  after  looking 
at  him  for  a  long  while,  she  finally  said,  "  I  think  that 
he  is  a  physician  at  the  Enfants  assistes."  When  about 
two  years  old  she  had  been  for  some  time  in  this  refuge, 
and  had  long  forgotten  the  physician,  whom  she  now 
recognized  with  difficulty  in  her  waking  state,  while 
she  could,  during  somnambulism,  give  his  name  when 
ordered  to  do  so. 

The  acuteness  of  the  memory  during  somnambulism, 
without  absolutely  justifying  those  who  assert  that 
nothing  is  lost  to  memory,  yet  shows  that  its  con- 
servative power  is  much  greater  than  is  supposed, 
when  measured  by  the  capacity  of  reproduction  or  re- 
collection. It  proves  that,  in  many  cases  in  which  we 
believe  that  a  certain  fact  is  completely  effaced  from  the 
memory,  this  is  by  no  means  the  case ;  the  trace  of  it  is 
there,  but  the  power  of  recalling  it  is  wanting;  and 
it  is  probable  that  under  the  influence  of  hypnotism,  or 
of  some  excitement  to  which  we  are  sensitive,  it  would 
be  possible  to  revive  the  apparently  extinct  memory  of 
the  fact  in  question. 

It  is  therefore  evident  that  hypnotism  has  a  peculiar 
power  of  exciting  the  recollection.  Our  experiments, 
which  are  in  accordance  with  those  of  other  observers, 
tend  to  show  that  in  the  sleeping  and  waking  states  the 
conservative  memory  is  about  the  same.  After  repeated 
attempts  to  make  hypnotized  subjects  repeat  a  series  of 
figures  after  only  one  reading,  we  could  not  discover  that 


138  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

they  were  able  to  retain  a  greater  number  of  figures  than 
in  their  waking  state.  But  these  are  negative  experi- 
ments, which  must  not  be  taken  for  more  than  they  are 
worth. 

The  development  of  the  memory  under  somnambulism 
may  be  compared  with  its  development  during  natural 
sleep.  There  are  numerous  facts  to  show  that  in  dreams 
we  see  people  or  hear  names  with  which  we  were  once 
acquainted,  and  which  we  believed  we  had  completely 
forgotten.  Maury,  an  author  who  may  with  advantage 
be  consulted  on  the  subject  of  sleep  and  dreams,  gives 
several  interesting  examples  of  this  revival  of  old 
memories  in  the  sleeper.  "  Some  years  ago,"  he  writes, 
"the  word  'Mussidan'  was  recalled  to  my  mind.  I  knew 
that  it  was  the  name  of  a  town  in  France,  but  I  had 
forgotten  where  it  was.  A  few  days  later,  I  saw  a  person 
in  my  dreams  who  said  that  he  came  from  Mussidan.  I 
asked  him  where  it  was,  and  he  told  me  that  it  was  in 
the  department  of  Dordogne."  Maury  verified  the  truth 
of  this  fact  when  he  awoke.  The  same  author  gives 
another  instance  of  the  recall  of  forgotten  facts  in  a 
dream.  His  youth  was  passed  at  Trilport,  where  his 
father  built  a  bridge.  He  dreamed  one  night  that  he  was 
a  child  at  Trilport,  and  that  he  saw  a  man  in  uniform 
and  asked  his  name.     The  man  replied  that  his  name 

was   C ,  that   he   was  the   bridge-ward,  and    then 

disappeared.     When  he  awoke,  Maury  was  haunted  by 

C 's  name,  and   some  time  after   he  asked    an  old 

family-servant  if  she  remembered  any  one  of  that  name. 

She  answered   at  once  that  a  man  named  C was 

bridge- ward  when  his  father  was  at  work  on  the  bridge.* 
♦  Maury,  Sommeil  et  Iieves,  p.  6.    Paris,  1861. 


SYMPTOMS  OP  HYPNOSIS.  189 

The  comparison  we  have  just  made  between  natural 
and  artificial  sleep  may  be  extended  to  the  phenomena 
which  ensue  on  awaking.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
forgetting  of  dreams  is  an  almost  constant  fact.  At  the 
moment  of  awakening  we  have  a  somewhat  vivid  sense 
of  our  dreams,  which  is  effaced  a  few  instants  afterwards, 
unless  we  take  the  precaution  of  relating  them  to  a  third 
person,  or  of  writing  them  down.  So  also  in  hypnosis ; 
if  the  sleep  has  been  at  all  profound,  forge tfulness  ensues 
on  awaking,  and  this  forge  tfulness  is  even  more  absolute 
than  after  the  natural  sleep.  This  characteristic  fact  has 
been  noted  by  all  observers.  Take  a  subject  who  has 
been  caused  to  execute  the  most  complex  acts,  and  to 
display  the  most  dramatic  hallucinations :  he  has  ex- 
pressed astonishment,  has  laughed,  wept,  and  been  angry 
— passing  through  all  the  violent  emotions ;  he  may  even 
have  fallen  down  and  injured  his  head  in  so  doing,  yet  he 
remembers  none  of  these  things  when  he  awakes.  If  left 
to  himself,  he  will  be  unable  to  recall  one  of  the  scenes  in 
which  he  has  taken  part  either  as  witness  or  actor. 

On  a  closer  examination,  however,  we  see  that  his 
forgetfulness  is  not  absolute;  a  vague  and  confused 
memory  remains,  which  may  be  revived  by  putting  the 
subject  on  the  right  road,  especially  when  he  is  aroused 
from  somnambulism  without  allowing  him  to  pass 
through  its  deepest  phases.  Heidenhain  gives  several 
instances  of  this  recall  of  the  memory,  which  is,  indeed, 
equally  possible  in  the  case  of  ordinary  dreams. 

After  hynotizing  his  brother,  Heidenhain  repeated 
to  him  the  following  quotation  from  Homer : — 

Tlolou  (re  iiros  (pvyfv  epKos  oSovtuv. 

He  then  awoke  him,  and  in  order  to  brinf^  the  line  back 


140  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

to  his  brother's  mind,  it  was  enough  to  say,  "Homer, 
flight.'  The  brother  then  accurately,  but  with  extreme 
slowness,  repeated  the  line  in  question.  I  take  this 
instance  from  Richet,  who  cites  another  of  the  same 
nature  :  "  On  awakening  F ,  I  can  revive  his  recollec- 
tion of  what  has  occurred.  He  says  at  first  that  he 
remembers  nothing,  but  if,  for  example,  I  indicate  that 
he  rose  up  in  terror,  he  says,  '  Ah  yes,  I  remember  that 
you  made  me  see  a  serpent.'"  Other  experimenters — 
Beaunis,  for  example — have  made  use  of  a  different 
method,  suggestion.  It  was  enough  to  suggest  to  some 
subjects  that  they  would,  on  awaking,  remember  all  that 
they  had  seen,  heard,  and  done  during  sleep,  and  their 
recollection  was  accordingly  complete.  Delboeuf  arrived 
at  the  same  result  without  making  any  special  suggestion; 
he  ascertained  that  whenever  the  subject  is  awakened 
in  the  midst  of  an  action,  he  is  capable  of  remembering 
all  that  is  connected  with  that  action.*  For  instance, 
the  experimenter  smokes  an  imaginary  cigar  beside  his 
hypnotized  subject;,  he  suddenly  says  that  the  burning 
ash  has  fallen  from  the  cigar  on  to  her  neckerchief  and 
has  set  it  on  fire.  The  subject  rises  at  once,  and  places 
the  neckerchief  in  a  basin  of  water  which  stands  on  the 
table.  This  is  the  moment  for  waking  her;  she  feels 
that  her  hands  are  wet,  sees  the  neckerchief,  and  recalls 
the  whole  scene.  In  this  experiment,  the  last  act  of  the 
dream  is  the  first  act  of  awakening.  Delboeuf  insists 
on  this  condition,  which  he  considers  necessary  to  ensure 
the  recollection.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  suggestion 
made    duiing  somnambulism   should    leave   a  material 

*  Delboeuf,  La    "Me'moire    cliez   Us    hypnotises  (Eevue    FliilosopMquej 
May,  1886). 


SYMPTOMS   OF   HYPNOSIS.  141 

trace;  it  is  also  necessary  to  surprise  the  subject  by 
awakino:  him  in  the  midst  of  an  action. 

These  experiments  are  the  more  interesting  since 
they  agree  with  other  pathological  facts.  One  of  the 
present  writers  has  shown  that  in  the  epileptic  state, 
which  has  been  compared  to  the  so-called  unconscious- 
ness of  somnambulism,  the  patient  may  have  retained 
the  memory  of  the  act  reputed  to  be  automatic,  and  can, 
under  the  same  conditions,  even  explain  it.*  We  should 
not,  however,  be  too  hasty  in  including  all  these  modes 
of  reviving  the  memory  in  a  formula,  since  the  result 
depends  upon  many  causes — the  constitution  of  the 
subject,  the  form  of  the  suggestion,  the  hypnotic  educa- 
tion, etc.  It  may  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  learn  that 
it  is  sometimes  possible  to  cause  a  subject  to  remember 
some  act  committed  during  somnambulism,  without 
putting  him  on  the  right  road  as  Richet  does,  or  giving 
him  a  special  suggestion  like  Beaunis,  or  awakening 
him  in  the  midst  of -an  act  like  Delboeuf ;  it  may  be 
done  simply  by  firmness,  and  by  fixing  the  subject's 
attention  as  steadily  as  possible  on  the  memory  which 
it  is  proposed  to  evoke.  If  at  the  same  time  an  exciting 
cause,  such  as  the  magnet,  is  employed,  it  contributes  to 
revive  the  memory  by  suggestion. 

Whatever  may  be  the  expedients  devised  to  excite 
the  memory  of  an  individual  issuing  from  the  hypnotic 
state,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  bridge  between  his  sleep 
and  his  awaking,  the  truth  remains  that  a  profound 
hypnotic  sleep  is  always  followed  by  a  suspension  of  the 
power  of  memory — a  fact   proved   by  the  very  efibrts 

*  Ch.  Fere,  Note  pour    servir   a    Vhistoire   des  actes    impuhi/s   des 
epileptiques  {Revue  de  Me'deciney  1885). 


142  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

which  it  is  necessary  to  make  to  restore  it.  It  is  evident 
that  hypnosis  produces  a  lesion  of  the  memory. 

This  lesion  is,  however,  superficial  rather  than 
profound;  it  only  affects  one  portion  of  the  memory — 
that  of  the  recollection;  the  memory  of  conservation 
remains  almost  intact,  since  a  fresh  sleep  gives  back  to 
the  subject  the  complete  memory  which  he  appeared  to 
have  lost  in  his  waking  state. 

It  may,  therefore,  be  said  that  the  disturbance  of  the 
memory  which  ensues  from  somnambulism  is  superficial, 
and  only  concerns  one  kind  of  memory — that  of  recollec- 
tion; its  power  is  exaggerated  under  somnambulism, 
and  depressed  on  a  return  to  the  normal  state,  and  we 
are  still  completely  ignorant  of  the  cause  of  such 
variations.  We  shall  have  to  make  many  such  con- 
fessions of  ignorance  in  the  course  of  this  work. 

It  is  difiicult  to  define  the  intellectual  condition  of 
hypnotized  subjects;  we  may  estimate  the  keenness  of 
their  senses,  and  make  an  inventory  of  the  contents 
of  their  memory,  but  it  is  not  possible  to  appreciate  with 
the  same  accuracy  the  state  of  their  judgment  and  of 
their  reason.  All  that  can  be  done  is  to  make  the 
general  remark  that  the  intelligence  of  a  hypnotic  subject 
is  developed  in  proportion  to  his  sensitiveness. 

"What  is  called  lethargy  implies  a  deep  and  dream- 
less sleep,  in  which  the  psychical  faculties  are  usually 
dormant.  Those  subjects  who  retain  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing are  still  capable  of  receiving  some  elementary 
suggestions :  if  pulled  by  the  sleeve,  they  may  be  made 
to  rise,  and  hallucinations  of  the  hearing  may  also  be 
produced ;  but  this  is  all  which  can  be  effected.  It  is, 
however,  possible  that  lethargy  only  suspends  the  power 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  143 

of  reaction,  and  that  behind  the  inert  mask  of  lethargy 
a  remnant  of  thought  is  still  awake. 

In  the  two  other  phases  of  catalepsy  and  somnam- 
bulism, the  sleep  is  not  nearly  so  profound ;  the  subject's 
intelligence  comes  into  play,  and  the  hypnotic  dream 
begins. 

The  automatism  of  catalepsy  is  its  dominant  character. 
This  epithet  has  sometimes  been  used  to  define  the  in- 
tellectual character  of  hypnosis,  but  it  is,  in  fact,  only 
the  cataleptic  subject  who  can  be  termed  an  automaton. 
Catalepsy  is  sometimes  allied  with  a  partial  wakefulness 
of  the  intelligence,  which  enables  the  experimenter  to  act 
on  his  subject  by  verbal  suggestion.  In  all  cases,  catalepsy 
permits  the  mind  to  be  handled  with  the  same  docility 
as  the  limbs;  the  subject's  ideality  may  be  said  to  be 
plastic.  The  suggestions  offered  to  him  are  inevitably 
accepted,  since  he  never  resists  them.  It  has  been  justly 
said  that  a  cataleptic  subject  ceases  to  have  a  personality; 
that  there  is  no  cataleptic  ego.  An  analogous  state  may 
be  found  in  certain  dreams  to  which  we  surrender  our- 
selves without  reflection  and  without  resistance. 

The  condition  of  the  somnambulist  is  very  different ; 
he  is  no  automaton,  but  a  person  endowed  with  character, 
aversions,  and  preferences.  For  this  reason  the  name  of 
secondary  condition,  in  opposition  to  the  waking  state, 
has  been  given  to  somnambulism.  In  this  state  there  is 
certainly  an  ego.  The  somnambulist's  intellectual  condi- 
tion may  be  compared  to  those  dreams  in  which  the 
sleeper  actively  intervenes,  and  displays  judgment,  critical 
sense,  and  sometimes  even  mind  and  will.  There  are, 
indeed,  somnambulists  who  dream  spontaneously,  and 
then  cease  to  be  en  rapport  with  the  experimenter. 


144  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

Setting  aside  what  concerns  lethargy  and  catalepsy, 
we  propose  to  study  some  developments  of  the  in- 
tellectual state  of  a  somnambulist.  Somnambulism  is 
emphatically  the  medico-legal  state,  and  it  is  the  state 
in  which  the  aptitude  to  receive  suggestions  is  the  most 
fully  developed. 

We  have  now  under  observation  two  subjects,  repre- 
senting the  two  opposite  types  of  somnambulism — the 
active  and  the  passive  types.  The  latter  remains  motion- 
less, with  closed  eyes,  without  speech  or  expression,  and, 
if  asked  a  question,  she  replies  in  a  low  voice.  Yet  we 
are  confident  that  this  repose  of  the  intelligence  is  only 
apparent ;  the  subject  retains  her  consciousness  of  places 
and  of  persons,  and  hears  all  that  is  said  in  her  presence. 
The  other  subject  is  a  singular  contrast  to  the  one  we 
have  just  described,  since  she  is  in  a  state  of  perpetual 
movement.  As  soon  as  she  is  thrown  into  a  somnambu- 
list condition,  she  rises  from  her  chair,  looks  to  the  right 
and  left,  and  will  even  go  so  far  as  to  address  the  persons 
present  with  familiarity,  whether  she  is  acquainted  with 
them  or  not.  On  one  occasion  the  photograph  of  one  of 
these  persons  was  shown  to  her;  she  took  it,  looked  for 
and  found  the  original,  and  compared  him  with  the 
photograph,  in  order  to  satisfy  herself  of  the  resemblance. 
At  another  time  she  spontaneously  described  some  hyp- 
notic experiments  which  another  person  had  performed 
upon  her  a  few  days  before.  In  short,  this  subject 
did  not,  like  the  other  one,  appear  to  be  asleep.  These 
are,  however,  only  appearances,  and  we  must  endeavour 
to  examine  more  closely  the  psychical  state  of  somnam- 
bulism. 

In   the   majority   of    subjects    there   is   no   marked 


SYMPTOMS  OP  HYPNOSIS.  145 

difference  between  their  normal  life  and  that  of  somnam- 
bulism. None  of  the  intellectual  faculties  are  absent 
during  sleep.  It  only  appears  that  the  tone  of  the 
psychical  life  is  exaggerated ;  excessive  psychical  excite- 
ment is  nearly  always  present  during  somnambulism. 
This  is  clearly  shown  in  the  emotions.  It  is,  in  general, 
perfectly  easy  to  make  a  subject  shout  with  laughter, 
or  shed  tears.  He  is  deeply  moved  by  a  dramatic  tale, 
and  even  by  words  in  which  there  is  no  sense,  if  they  are 
uttered  in  a  serious  tone.  It  is  curious  to  note  the 
influence  of  music;  the  subject  expresses  in  all  his 
attitudes  and  gestures  an  emotion  in  accordance  with 
the  character  of  the  piece. 

In  short,  hypnotism  does  not  appear  to  effect  any 
radical  change  in  the  character  of  those  subjects  whom 
we  have  observed.  The  intellectual  faculties  are  as 
active  as  before.  The  following  is  a  convincing  proof  of 
the  exercise  of  the  mind.  A  patient  who  had  been  ad- 
mitted to  the  Salpetriere  at  an  early  age  was  in  the  habit 

of  tutoying  M.  X when  she  was  alone  with  him,  or  in 

company  with  her  acquaintance ;  she  ceased  to  do  so  on 
the  entrance  of  a  stranger.  Even  under  somnambulism 
this  patient  observed  the  laws  of  good  breeding,  address- 
ing M.  X as   tvb  when  she  was   alone   with   him, 

and  ceasing  to  do  so  as  soon  as  a  stranger  came  in. 

It  is  in  somnambulists  that  we  find  the  curious 
phenomenon  of  resistance,  of  which  we  shall  speak 
further,  when  we  come  to  consider  suggestions.  When 
an  order  is  given  to  somnambulists,  they  will  often 
dispute  it,  ask  the  reason,  or  refuse  to  obey.  It  is  under 
the  form  of  a  refusal  to  obey  a  given  order  that  resistance 
occurs;  subjects  more  rarely  resist  hallucinations,  since 


146  ANJMAL  MAGNETISM. 

these  do  not  affect  their  personality.  There  are,  how- 
ever, instances  of  this  latter  form  of  resistance.  When 
we  proposed  to  transform  one  of  our  subjects  into  a 
priest,  and  to  give  him  a  cassock,  he  obstinately  refused 
it.  It  was  suggested  to  one  of  E-ichet's  subjects  that  her 
arm  was  being  amputated,  and  she  screamed  at  the  sight 
of  the  flowing  blood,  but  almost  at  the  same  moment  she 
discovered  that  it  was  a  fiction,  and  she  laughed  through 
her  tears.  Facts  of  this  kind  have  unjustly  led  to  the 
suspicion  of  imposture.  E-ichet's  subject  was  really 
under  an  hallucination,  and  beheld  a  sensible  image,  but 
her  reason  was  not  completely  paralyzed,  and  she  was 
still  able  to  defend  herself  against  the  false  perception 
suggested  to  her. 

If  we  study  our  own  dreams,  we  may  all  become 
aware  of  these  curious  duplications  of  the  consciousness ; 
and  this  shows  the  connection  between  normal  and 
hypnotic  sleep.  The  dreamer  is,  in  general,  like  the 
somnambulist  to  whom  hallucinations  are  suggested ;  he 
is  surprised  by  nothing,  although  the  most  absurd  im- 
probabilities are  presented  to  his  vision.  Yet  there  is 
sometimes  a  remnant  of  critical  sense  which  induces  him 
to  say,  in  the  midst  of  some  grotesque  scene,  "  But  this 
is  impossible  ;  I  must  be  dreaming  ! " 

Somnambulists  can  not  only  resist,  they  can  tell  lies. 
Pitres  states  that  he  suggested  to  a  somnambulist  woman 
that  she  should  murder  one  of  her  neighbours,  and  when 
she  supposed  that  the  crime  was  accomplished,  he  caused 
her,  still  in  the  somnambulist  state,  to  appear  before  a 
magistrate.  She  declared  her  innocence  of  the  crime, 
and  it  was  only  after  a  prolonged  examination,  when 
pressed  with  questions  and  overwhelmed  by  proof,  that 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  147 

she  finally  confessed  that  she  had  stabbed  her  neighbour 
with  a  knife.  And  even  then  the  confession  was  made 
with  some  reserve.* 

These  facts  show  that  a  somnambulist  is  far  from 
being,  as  some  writers  assert,  an  unconscious  automaton, 
devoid  of  judgment,  reason,  and  intellectual  spontaneity. 
On  the  contrary,  his  memory  is  perfect,  his  intelligence 
is  active,  and  his  imagination  is  highly  excited. 

Instances  have  been  given  of  subjects  who  could, 
during  somnambulism,  perform  intellectual  feats  of  which 
they  were  incapable  in  the  waking  state.  We  ourselves 
have  ascertained  nothing  decisive  on  this  point,  except 
that  we  have  sometimes  observed  hypnotized  subjects, 
who  could  read  printing  in  an  inverted  position  more 
rapidly  than  when  they  were  awake,  and  who  could  even 
supply  the  omitted  letters  of  a  double  acrostic.  There  is, 
indeed,  nothing  improbable  in  this  quickening  of  the 
intellect.  There  are  several  instances  of  a  thinker  having, 
when  dreaming  at  night,  resolved  problems  to  which  he 
had  devoted  the  fruitless  study  of  many  days. 

We  must,  finally,  note  a  peculiar  mental  state  which 
is  only  found  in  slight  hypnotism.  The  subjects  assert, 
on  awaking,  that  they  have  never  for  a  moment  lost 
consciousness,  and  that  they  have  in  some  sense  been 
present  as  witnesses  at  the  phenomena  of  suggestion 
developed  by  the  magnetizer. 

The  very  vague  observations  to  which  we  have  been 
obliged  to  restrict  ourselves  show  the  difficulty  of  stating 
the  psychical  formula  of  somnambulism.  We  are  content 
to  assert  that  the  state  is  not  accurately  defined  by 
applying  to  it  the  term  of  automatism. 

♦  Pitrca,  De  la  suggestion  lypiiotique,  p.  63.     Bordeaux,  1884. 


148  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

Finally,  their  aptitude  for  suggestions  is  a  feature  of 
the  intellectual  state  of  hypnotic  subjects,  and  this  fact 
is  so  important  that  we  propose  to  treat  of  it  apart. 

The  phenomena  of  elective  sensibility,  -which  we 
have  already  mentioned  in  speaking  of  the  processes  of 
hypnotization,are  considerably  developed  during  somnam- 
bulism. Somnambulist  subjects  often  display  a  kind 
of  attraction  for  the  experimenter  who  has  hypnotized 
them  by  touching  the  scalp.  We  shall  see  presently  that 
friction  of  the  scalp  is  the  means  most  generally  used 
in  the  secondary  production  of  somnambulism.  When 
pressure  on  the  scalp  is  effected  with  an  inert  object,  as, 
for  instance,  with  a  paper-cutter,  a  state  of  indifferent 
somnambulism  is  generally  produced :  the  subject 
remains  calm,  and  may  be  approached  and  even  touched 
by  any  one  without  causing  him  to  make  any  gesture 
of  defence ;  the  contractures  proper  to  a  state  of  som- 
nambulism may  be  produced  by  any  one,  or  produced 
by  one  person  and  destroyed  by  another;  they  do  not 
depend  on  any  individual  influence,  and  suggestions 
may  be  given  by  any  of  those  present. 

It  is  quite  otherwise  in  the  case  of  elective  somnam- 
hulism.  As  soon  as  the  experimenter  has  pressed  upon 
the  scalp  with  his  hand,  or  has  breathed  upon  the  subject 
with  his  mouth,  the  latter  is  attracted  towards  the  experi- 
menter ;  if  the  experimenter  withdraws  to  a  distance,  the 
subject  displays  uneasiness  and  discomfort ;  he  sometimes 
follows  the  experimenter  with  a  sigh,  and  can  only  rest 
beside  him.  Any  contact  with  a  third  person  causes 
suffering. 

Elective  somnambulism  is  also  produced  when  the 
subject  is  hypnotized  by  means  of  passes,  which  is  the 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  149 

practice  of  magnetizers,  or  by  intimation  or  suggestion. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  if  the  subject  is  told  that  he 
will  fall  asleep  at  a  given  hour  on  the  following  day, 
the  sleep  which  occurs  at  that  hour  in  the  operator's 
absence  is  elective,  and  the  subject  is  only  en  rapport 
with  the  person  by  whom  the  suggestion  was  made 
(Beaunis).  Finally,  when  the  subject  is  in  a  state  of 
indifferent  somnambulism,  and  a  person  touches  an  ex- 
posed part  of  the  body,  such  as  the  hands,  the  elective 
phenomena  are  displayed  in  his  favour.  All  these 
processes  display  the  common  characteristic  of  bringing 
the  personality  of  the  experimenter  into  play,  and  if  his 
importance  was  formerly  exaggerated,  it  has  been  too 
much  depreciated  since  Braid's  time. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  electivity  is  altogether 
absent  in  some  subjects,  while  it  is  constant  in  others. 
And  again,  in  addition  to  the  artificial  electivity  de- 
veloped by  the  experimenter,  there  is  a  natural  or  spon- 
taneous electivity;  for  this  reason  one  experimenter  is 
more  successful  than  another  in  hypnotizing  or  in  giving 
suggestions  to  a  given  subject,  and  especially  when  he 
has  often  hypnotized  that  subject  before. 

This  special  influence  of  one  individual  on  another, 
which  is  so  strongly  marked  during  somnambulism,  is,  in 
fact,  only  the  exaggeration  of  a  normal  fact.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  persons  who  feel  a  special  attraction 
towards  some  others,  and  who  have  a  sense  of  sympathy 
or  antipathy  without  any  sufficient  motive.  It  cannot 
be  disputed  that  these  are  real  psychical  states,  although 
psychologists  have  for  the  most  part  abandoned  their 
study  to  novel-writers. 

It  is  probable  that  the  phenomena  of  electivity  have 


150  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

their  origin  in  the  experimenter's  contact  with  his 
subject.  Bain,  in  his  work  on  the  Emotions,  remarks 
that  animal  contact  and  the  pleasure  of  an  embrace 
are  the  beginning  and  end  of  all  the  tender  emotions. 
We  have  seen,  in  fact,  that  electivity  is  displayed  in  a 
somnambulist  after  his  scalp  and  bare  hands  have  been 
touched  by  the  experimenter ;  the  action  of  the  fingers, 
as  they  are  used  in  making  passes,  seems  also  to  be  due 
to  a  like  influence.  The  production  of  elective  somnam- 
bulism by  means  of  suggestion  may  also  be  explained 
by  the  fact  mentioned  above,  that  since  suggestion  con- 
sists in  the  recall  of  a  sensation,  it  probably  acts  in  the 
same  way  as  a  sensorial  excitement. 

An  ingenious  experiment  made  by  Richer  confirms 
this  view,  and  shows  that  electivity  has  its  source  in  an 
exaggeration  of  the  sense  of  touch.  "  When  the  subject 
is  in  a  state  of  profound  somnambulism,  owing  to  friction 
of  the  scalp  with  some  inert  object,  two  observers 
come  forward,  and  each  takes  hold  of  one  of  his  hands, 
without  meeting  with  any  resistance  on  his  part.  Yery 
soon  the  subject  presses  each  observer's  hand  with  his 
own,  and  will  not  leave  go  of  them.  The  special  state 
of  attraction  applies  to  both,  and  the  subject  is  in  some 
sort  torn  in  two.  Each  observer  only  possesses  the 
sympathy  of  one  half  of  the  subject,  who  ofiers  the  same 
resistance  to  the  observer  on  the  left,  when  he  attempts 
to  seize  the  right  hand,  as  to  the  observer  on  the  right, 
who  would  take  the  left  hand."  * 

A  variation  on  this  experiment  is  also  very  in- 
structive. The  experimenter  preferred  by  the  subject 
may  transmit  this  attraction  to  another  person;  the 
♦  Eicher,  op.  cit,  p.  6G3. 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  151 

second  experimenter  has  only  to  slip  his  hand  over  that 
of  the  former  one,  so  as  gradually  to  lay  hold  of  the 
subject's  hand,  and  he,  after  one  strong  shock,  presses  up 
to  him  in  the  same  way  as  to  the  first  experimenter. 

Elective  sensibility  is  displayed  by  several  phe- 
nomena, of  which  that  which  relates  to  contractures  is 
the  most  important.  Only  the  experimenter  who  is 
en  rapport  with  the  subject  can  produce  and  destroy  the 
contractures  of  somnambulism.  It  is  useless  for  another 
person  to  try  to  put  an  end  to  a  contracture  by  a  fresh 
excitement  of  the  same  nature,  directed  on  the  same 
point.  His  efforts  are  fruitless,  even  when  the  subject 
cannot  see  him.  The  hypergesthesia  of  the  sense  of 
touch  enables  the  subject  to  recognize  the  contact  of 
one  operator  in  a  thousand ;  he  may  even  recognize  it 
through  his  clothes. 

Electivity  is  also  found  in  suggestions.  In  the  case 
of  indifferent  somnambulism,  the  subject  complies  with 
all  suggestions,  from  whomsoever  they  come  ;  an  halluci- 
nation effected  by  the  words  of  one  person  may  be 
continued  by  another,  and  destroyed  by  a  third.  This 
also  occurs  in  catalepsy.  In  elective  somnambulism,  the 
subject  is  often  only  able  to  hear  the  voice  of  his 
hypnotizer,  and  from  him  alone  he  can  receive  sug- 
gestions. We  have  also  remarked  that  when  two 
observers  divide  the  subject's  sympathy  in  half,  the 
hallucination  by  the  one  en  rapport  with  the  right  side 
only  affects  the  right  eye ;  it  is  unilateral,  and  the  subject 
sees  nothing  with  his  left  eye. 

When  the  phenomena  of  elective  sensibility  are 
subjected  to  sesthesiogenic  action,  repulsion,  by  a  singular 
transformation,  succeeds  to  attraction.     At  the  moment 


152  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

when   one   of  our  somnambulist   subjects  was  holding 

M.  X 's  hands,  we  placed  a  small  magnet  close  to 

his  head.     The  subject  at  once  withdrew  from  M.  X , 

uttering  a  cry ;  M.  X followed  her ;  she  still  with- 
drew, groaning  whenever  he  touched  her.  Shortly  after- 
wards she  came  towards  the  experimenter  of  her  own 
accord,  and  again  drew  back,  so  that  it  was  impossible 
to  touch  her.  When  she  approached  for  the  third  time, 
he  took  the  opportunity  of  awaking  her.* 

We  must  here  remind  our  readers  that  in  the  case 
of  some  hysterical  subjects  there  are  regions  in  certain 
parts  of  the  body,  termed  by  Chambard  erogenic  zones,'\ 
which  have  some  analogy  with  the  hysterogenous  zones, 
and  simple  contact  with  these,  when  the  subject  is  in  a 
state  of  somnambulism,  produces  genital  sensations  of  such 
intensity  as  to  cause  an  orgasm.  These  phenomena  have 
often  been  displayed,  unknown  to  the  observer,  who 
might  be  liable  to  the  gravest  imputations,  unless  he  had 
taken  the  precaution,  indispensable  in  such  cases,  of  never 
being  alone  with  his  subject.  When  we  add  to  this  fact 
the  possibility  of  suggesting  to  the  somnambulist  the 
hallucination  that  some  given  person  is  present,  it  is 
easy  to  see  what  culpable  mystifications  might  occur. 

The  erogenic  zone  only  becomes  sensitive  when 
somnambulism  is  absolute.  In  partial  somnambulism, 
produced  by  artificial  excitement  in  the  region  of  the 
motor  centres  of  the  limbs,  the  erogenic  zone  is  inactive ; 
it  becomes  active  when  the  occipital  region  of  the  brain 
is  excited. 

*  Binet  and  Fere,  La  Folarization  psycJnque  (Itevue  Philosophiqiief 
April,  1885). 

t  Chambard,  Etudes  sur  le  Somndbulisme  provoque.    1881. 


SYMPTOMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  153 

The  erogenic  zone  may  be  transferred  by  the  magnet. 
This  transfer  is  followed  by  consecutive  oscillations, 
which  produce  an  intense  genital  agitation.  Finally,  the 
excitement  of  the  erogenic  zone  has  no  effect  unless  it 
is  made  by  a  person  of  the  opposite  sex ;  if  the  pressure 
is  made  by  another  woman,  or  with  an  inert  object,  it 
merely  produces  an  unpleasant  impression. 


154  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

THE  HYPNOTIC   STATES. 

Charcot's    nosographic    essay — Catalepsy — Lethargy — Somnambulism — 
Meaning  of  the  three  states — Their  variations — Intermediate  states. 

The  different  phenomena  presented  by  the  symptoms  of 
hypnotism  may  either  exist  separately  or  occur  associated 
in  a  certain  order.  Charcot  and  his  pupils  have  observed 
that  in  hysterical  subjects  these  symptoms  tend  to  fall 
into  three  distinct  groups.  We  think  it  well  to  give  here 
a  summary  of  Charcot's  nosographic  essay.* 

*' Attemnpt  to  Tnahe  a  nosographic  distinction  of  the 
different  nervous  states  known  under  the  name 
of  Hypnotism. 

"The  numerous  and  varied  phenomena  which  are 
observed  in  hypnotic  subjects  do  not  occur  in  one  and 
the  same  nervous  state.  In  reality,  hypnotism  clinically 
represents  a  natural  group,  including  a  series  of  nervous 
states,  differing  from  each  other,  and  each  distinguished 
by  peculiar  symptoms.  We  ought,  therefore,  to  follow 
the  example  of  nosographists  in  endeavouring  to  make  a 
clear  definition  of  these  different  nervous  states,  accord- 

*  Comptes  renclus  de  V Academic  des  Sciences.    1882. 


THE  HYPNOTIC  STATES.  155 

ing  to  their  generic  characters,  before  entering  on  the 
closer  study  of  the  phenomena  presented  by  each  of 
them.  It  is  owing  to  not  having  begun  by  defining 
the  special  state  of  the  subject  under  observation  that 
observers  so  often  misunderstand  and  contradict  one 
another  without  sufficient  cause. 

"These  different  states  which,  taken  as  a  whole,  include 
all  the  symptoms  of  hypnotism,  may  be  referred  to  three 
fundamental  types :  1st,  the  cataleptic  state  ;  2nd,  the 
lethargic  state  ;  and  3rd,  the  state  of  artificial  som- 
nambulism. Each  of  these  states,  including  moreover  a 
certain  number  of  secondary  forms,  and  leaving  room  for 
mixed  states,  may  be  displayed  suddenly,  originally,  and 
separately.  They  may  also,  in  the  course  of  a  single 
observation,  and  in  one  subject,  be  produced  in  succession, 
in  varying  order,  at  the  will  of  the  observer,  by  the 
employment  of  certain  methods.  In  this  latter  case,  the 
difierent  states  mentioned  above  may  be  said  to  represent 
the  phases  or  periods  of  a  single  process. 

"  Setting  aside  the  variations,  the  imperfect  forms,  and 
the  mixed  states,  we  do  not  propose  in  this  account  to  do 
more  than  indicate  briefly  the  general  features  of  these 
three  fundamental  states,  which  may  be  said  to  dominate 
the  complex  history  of  the  symptoms  of  hypnotism. 

"1.  The  Cataleptic  State. — This  may  be  produced  :  (a) 
primarily,  under  the  influence  of  an  intense  and  unex- 
pected noise,  of  a  bright  light  presented  to  the  gaze,  or, 
again,  in  some  subjects,  by  the  more  or  less  prolonged 
fixing  of  the  eyes  on  a  given  object;  (6)  consecutively 
to  the  lethargic  state,  when  the  eyes,  which  up  bo  that 
moment  had  been  closed,  are  exposed  to  the  light  by 
raising  the  eyelids.     The  subject  thus  rendered  cataleptic 


156  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

is  motionless  and,  as  it  were,  fascinated.  The  eyes  are 
open,  the  gaze  is  fixed,  the  eyelids  do  not  quiver,  the 
tears  soon  gather  and  flow  down  the  cheeks.  Often  there 
is  anaesthesia  of  the  conjunctiva,  and  even  of  the  cornea. 
The  limbs  and  all  parts  of  the  body  may  retain  the 
position  in  which  they  are  placed  for  a  considerable 
period,  even  when  the  attitude  is  one  which  it  is  difficult 
to  maintain.  The  limbs  appear  to  be  extremely  light 
when  raised  or  displaced,  and  there  is  no  Jiexibilitas  cerea, 
nor  yet  what  is  termed  the  stiffness  of  a  lay  figure. 
The  tendon  reflex  disappears.  Neuro-muscular  hyper- 
excitability  is  absent.  There  is  complete  insensibility  to 
pain,  but  some  senses  retain  their  activity,  at  any  rate 
in  part — the  muscular  sense,  and  those  of  sight  and 
hearing.  This  continuance  of  sensorial  activity  often 
enables  the  experimenter  to  influence  the  cataleptic 
subject  in  various  ways,  and  to  develop  in  him  by  means 
of  suggestion  automatic  impulses,  and  also  to  produce 
hallucinations.  When  this  is  the  case,  the  fixed  attitudes 
artificially  impressed  on  the  limbs,  or,  in  a  more  general 
way,  on  different  parts  of  the  body,  give  place  to  more 
or  less  complex  movements,  perfectly  co-ordinated  and  in 
agreement  with  the  nature  of  the  hallucinations  and  of 
the  impulses  which  have  been  produced.  If  left  to  him- 
self, the  subject  soon  falls  back  into  the  state  in  which  he 
was  placed  at  the  moment  when  he  was  influenced  by 
the  suggestion. 

"2.  The  Lethargic  State, — This  is  displayed:  (a)  pri- 
marily, under  the  influence  of  a  fixed  gaze  at  some  object 
placed  within  a  certain  distance  of  the  eyes ;  (h)  in  suc- 
cession to  the  cataleptic  state,  simply  by  closing  the  eye- 
lids, or  by  leading  the  subject  into  a  perfectly  dark  place 


THE  HYPNOTIC  STATES.  157 

"At  the  moment  when  he  falls  into  the  lethargic 
state,  the  subject  often  emits  a  peculiar  sound  from  the 
larynx,  and  at  the  same  time  a  little  foam  gathers  on 
the  lips.  He  then  becomes  flaccid,  as  if  plunged  in 
deep  sleep ;  there  is  complete  insensibility  to  pain  in  the 
skin,  and  in  the  mucous  membrane  in  proximity  with 
it.  The  organs  of  the  senses  sometimes,  however,  retain 
a  certain  amount  of  activity  ;  but  the  various  attempts 
which  may  be  made  to  affect  the  subject  by  means  of 
suggestion  or  intimidation  are  generally  fruitless.  The 
limbs  are  relaxed,  flaccid,  and  pendent,  and  when  raised 
they  fall  back  again  as  soon  as  they  are  left  to  them- 
selves. The  pupils  are,  on  the  other  hand,  contracted, 
the  eyes  are  closed  or  half-closed,  and  an  almost  incessant 
quivering  of  the  eyelids  may  usually  be  observed.  There 
is  an  exaggeration  of  the  tendon  reflex ;  neuro-muscular 
hyperexcitability  is  always  present,  although  it  varies 
in  intensity.  It  may  be  general,  extending  to  all  the 
muscles  of  the  animal  system,  the  face,  the  trunk,  and 
the  limbs ;  and  it  may  also  be  partial,  only  present,  for 
instance,  in  the  upper  limbs,  and  not  in  the  face.  This 
phenomenon  is  displayed  when  mechanical  excitement  is 
applied  to  a  nerve-trunk  by  means  of  pressure  with  a 
rod  or  quill;  this  causes  the  muscles  supplied  by  this 
nerve  to  contract. 

"  The  muscles  themselves  may  be  directly  excited  in 
the  same  way ;  somewhat  intense  and  prolonged  excite- 
ment of  the  muscles  of  the  limbs,  trunk,  and  neck  pro- 
duces contracture  of  the  muscles  in  question ;  on  the 
face,  however,  the  contractions  are  transitory,  and  do  not 
become  established  in  a  state  of  permanent  contracture. 
Contracture  may  also  be  produced  in  the  limbs  by  means 
8 


158  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

of  repeated  percussion  of  the  tendons.  These  contrac- 
tures, whether  produced  by  excitement  of  the  nerves 
or  muscles,  or  by  percussion  of  the  tendons,  are  rapidly 
relaxed  by  exciting  the  antagonist  muscles.  As  it  has 
been  already  said,  the  cataleptic  state  can  be  instan- 
taneously developed  in  a  subject  plunged  in  lethargy, 
if  while  in  a  light  room  the  upper  eyelids  are  raised 
so  as  to  expose  the  eyes. 

"  3.  The  State  of  Artificial  Somnambulism. —  This  state 
may,  in  some  subjects,  be  immediately  produced  by  fixity 
of  gaze,  and  also  in  other  ways  which  it  is  not  now 
necessary  to  enumerate.  It  may  be  produced  at  will  in 
subjects  who  have  first  been  thrown  into  a  state  of 
lethargy  or  catalepsy,  by  exerting  a  simple  pressure 
on  the  scalp,  or  by  a  slight  friction.  This  state  seems 
to  correspond  with  what  has  been  termed  the  magnetic 
sleep. 

"It  is  difiicult  to  analyze  the  very  complex  phe- 
nomena which  are  presented  under  this  form.  In  the  re- 
searches made  at  the  Salpetriere,  many  of  them  have  been 
provisionally  set  aside.  The  chief  aim  has  been  to  define, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  characteristics  which  distinguish 
somnambulism  from  the  lethargic  and  cataleptic  states, 
and  to  demonstrate  the  relations  which  exist  between 
it  and  the  two  latter  states. 

"  The  eyes  are  closed  or  half-closed ;  the  eyelids 
generally  quiver;  when  left  to  himself  the  subject  seems 
10  be  asleep,  but  even  in  this  case  the  limbs  are  not  in 
such  a  pronounced  state  of  relaxation  as  when  we  have 
to  do  with  lethargy.  Neuro-muscular  hyperexcitability, 
as  it  has  been  defined  above,  does  not  exist ;  in  other 
words,  excitement  of  the  nerves  or  of  the  muscles  them- 


THE  HYPNOTIC  STATES.  15.9 

selves,  and  percussion  of  the  tendons,  do  not  produce 
contracture.  On  the  other  hand,  various  methods,  among 
others,  passing  the  hand  lightly  and  repeatedly  over  the 
surface  of  a  limb  (mesmeric  passes),  or,  again,  breathing 
gently  on  the  skin,  cause  the  limb  to  become  rigid,  but 
in  a  way  which  differs  from  the  contracture  due  to 
muscular  hyperexcitability,  since  it  cannot,  like  the  latter, 
be  relaxed  by  mechanical  excitement  of  the  antagonist 
muscles ;  it  also  differs  from  cataleptic  immobility  in  the 
resistance  encountered  in  the  region  of  the  joints,  when 
the  attempt  is  made  to  give  a  change  of  attitude  to  the 
stiffened  limb.  To  distinguish  this  state  from  cataleptic 
immobility,  strictly  so  called,  it  Ls  proposed  to  distinguish 
the  rigidity  peculiar  to  the  somnambulist  state  by  the 
name  of  catalepsoid  rigidity;  it  might  also  be  called 
pseudo-catalejytie. 

"  The  skin  is  insensible  to  pain,  but  this  is  combined 
with  hypersesthesia  of  some  forms  of  cutaneous  sensi- 
bility, of  the  muscular  sense,  and  of  the  special  senses  of 
sight,  hearing,  and  smelJ.  It  is  generally  easy,  by  the 
employment  of  commands  or  suggestion,  to  induce  the 
subject  to  perform  very  complex  automatic  actions.  We 
may  then  observe  what  is  strictly  called  artificial  som- 
nambulism. 

"  In  the  case  of  a  subject  in  a  state  of  somnambulism, 
a  slight  pressure  on  the  cornea,  made  by  applying  the 
fingers  to  the  eyelids,  will  change  that  state  into  a 
lethargy  accompanied  by  neuro-muscular  hyperexcita- 
bility ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  eyes  are  kept  open  in  a 
light  room  by  raising  their  lids,  the  cataleptic  state  is 
not  produced," 

We  ought  to  add  that  this  description  is  made  from 


160  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

nature,  and  that  the  Salpetriere  nearly  always  furnishes 
patients  in  whom  it  is  easy  to  observe  these  three  states, 
with  all  their  characteristics.  In  order  to  observe  these 
states  in  a  new  subject,  the  conditions  laid  down  by 
the  Salpetriere  school  must  be  observed.  These  two 
conditions  have  been  already  noted  by  us :  (1)  The 
experiment  must  be  tried  on  the  same  kind  of  subject, 
that  is,  on  one  affected  by  epileptic  hysteria ;  (2)  the 
same  mode  of  operation  must  be  used,  that  is,  by 
the  simplest  processes — by  fixity  of  gaze,  pressure  on  the 
scalp,  the  electric  spark,  etc.  Any  change  effected  in 
one  of  these  two  conditions  alters  .the  experiment  and 
consequently  modifies  its  results. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  even  in  the  case  of  subjects 
affected  by  epileptic  hysteria,  results  differing  from  those 
of  Charcot  will  be  obtained  if  the  patients  are  subjected 
to  a  different  modus  operandi ;' \i,  in  other  words,  they 
do  not  receive  the  same  hypnotic  education. 

We  have  often  been  struck  by  this  fact  in  the  course 
of  our  researches,  and  it  has  appeared  the  more  significant 
to  us,  since  our  experiments  have  been  made  on  subjects 
resembling  those  who  served  to  establish  the  theory  of 
the  three  states.  We  give  some  examples.  It  is  not, 
as  might  be  supposed,  a  necessary  symptom  of  catalepsy 
that  the  eyes  should  be  open.  We  have  observed  that 
if  hemi-catalepsy  and  hemi-lethargy  are  produced,  and 
these  hemi-states  are  then  transferred,  half  of  the  body 
becomes  cataleptic,  although  the  eye  belonging  to  that 
half  remains  shut.  Catalepsy  with  closed  eyes  may,  there- 
fore, exist  in  profound  hypnotism.  So,  again,  it  is  possible 
to  throw  the  same  subjects  into  a  deep  lethargy,  in  which 
no  trace  of  neuro-muscular  hyperexcitability   remains 


THE  HYPNOTIC  STATES.  161 

We  have  ascertained  that  when  a  maomet  is  brouojht  near 
to  the  arm  of  a  subject  in  a  natural  sleep,  or  to  the  scalp 
of  a  subject  in  the  lethargic  state,  a  new  state  is  pro- 
duced which  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  lethargy 
described  above  except  the  relaxed  state  of  the  muscles ; 
mechanical  excitement  of  the  nerves,  muscles,  and  ten- 
dons, and  pressure  on  the  hypnogenic  or  hysterogenic 
zones,  produce  absolutely  no  effect.  No  change  occurs 
when  the  eyes  are  forced  open,  the  breathing  is  impercep- 
tible, and  there  is  complete  insensibility ;  it  is,  in  fact,  the 
image  of  death.  Pitres  *  had  the  opportunity  of  observ- 
ing a  case  of  equally  profound  lethargy  in  a  patient  who 
was  subject  to  spontaneous  attacks  of  sleep.  When  one 
of  these  attacks  came  on  while  he  was  in  a  lethargy 
accompanied  by  hyperexcitability,  this  phase  of  hypnosis 
became  more  profound,  and  all  muscular  reaction  disap- 
peared. Finally,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  neuro- 
muscular hyperexcitability  is  not  a  symptom  peculiar  to 
lethargy;  in  cases  of  profound  hypnotism,  contractures 
may  be  produced  in  the  waking  state,  corresponding  in 
all  respects  to  those  of  lethargy. 

These  facts  only  prove  that  the  general  symptoms 
of  profound  hypnotism  may  be  incomplete  or  modified, 
and  this  is  also  the  case  with  all  other  morbid  symptoms. 

The  number  of  states  or  periods  may  also  vary  in  the 
case  of  each  subject.  Speaking  generally,  there  are  three 
states — lethargy,  catalepsy,  and  somnambulism  ;  but  this 
number  is  not  fixed.  Dumontpallier  and  his  pupils 
demonstrated  some  time  ago,  and  any  one  may  verify 
the  fact  for  himself,  that  there  are  transitional  stages 
between  each  of  these  periods,  really  mixed  states,  which 

*  Des  Zones  hypnogenes,  p.  C5. 


162  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

the  experimenter  may  make  permanent  by  the  employ- 
ment of  appropriate  means.  In  this  way  from  six  to 
nine  new  states  may  be  created,  or  even  a  greater 
number.  It  is  probable  that  the  invention  of  new 
experimental  processes,  subjecting  hypnotic  patients 
to  fresh  modes  of  excitement,  would  lead  to  the  pro- 
duction of  entirely  new  manifestations,  differing  from 
those  which  have  been  described  up  to  this  time.  In 
fact,  hypnosis  is  not  a  spontaneous  neurosis,  but  an 
experimental  nervous  state,  of  which  the  symptoms  may 
vary  with  the  processes  which  give  rise  to  it,  while, 
however,  still  falling  within  the  limits  of  the  general 
physiology  of  the  nervous  system. 

We  should  misunderstand  Charcot's  description  if 
we  regard  it  as  a  systematic  work.  The  only  object  of 
the  description  was  to  represent  hypnosis  in  all  its  forms 
and  details.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  at  the  time 
it  was  made,  he  wished  to  establish  the  real  existence 
of  a  certain  number  of  hypnotic  phenomena,  and  to 
demonstrate  the  existence  of  an  experimental  nervous 
state  by  such  strongly  marked  characters  as  to  be 
obvious  to  every  one.  Charcot  selected  subjects  in 
whom  these  characters  were  displayed  in  an  ex- 
ao-rrerated  form  which  left  no  room  for  doubt.  This 
method  was  perfectly  successful,  since  even  those  who 
were  unwilling  to  accept  profound  hypnotism,  were  led 
to  study  its  less  developed  forms. 

The  theory  of  the  three  states,  therefore,  only  includes 
one  part  of  the  truth,  but  it  is  a  part  which  opened  the 
way  to  all  the  researches  subsequently  made  upon  the 
question,  and  even  now  profound  hypnotism  is  the 
only  state  in  which  we   find  such  objective  characters 


THE  HYPNOTIC  STATES.  163 

as  to  limit  the  field  of  discussion.  It  is  the  object  of 
the  Salpetriere  school,  not  so  much  to  give  a  definitive 
description,  as  to  show  that  hypnotism  may  be  studied 
in  accordance  with  the  most  improved  processes  of  clini- 
cal science  and  experimental  physiology,  and  that  the 
science  can  only  be  constituted  by  means  of  the  charac- 
ters determined  by  this  mode  of  study.  As  long  as 
patients  affected  by  acute  hysteria  exist,  most  of  the  results 
obtained  by  the  Salpetriere  school  may  be  verified. 

The  history  of  profound  hypnotism  serves  as  an 
invaluable  guide  in  threading  our  way  through  the  con- 
fused mass  of  observations  which  are  not  included  in  this 
form  of  neurosis. 


16ii  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

IMPEEFECT  FORMS  OF  HYPNOSIS. 

imperfect  states — Confusion  of  states  in  hysterical  subjects  — II)' pnosis  in 
liealtliy  individuals  :  Experiments  by  Kichet,  Boltey,  and  Biemaud — 
Diflfereut  results  obtained  by  the  Nancy  school. 

There  are  many  hysterical  subjects  in  whom  the  division 
of  hypnosis  into  three  states  cannot  be  traced.  Many 
observers  have  pointed  out  these  exceptions  to  the  rule, 
which  are  indeed  much  more  numerous  than  the  normal 
cases ;  it  is  only  just  to  add  that  this  fact  was  first  pointed 
out  by  the  Salpetriere  school.  Richet  writes  :  "  The  neuro- 
muscular phenomena  of  lethargy  and  of  somnambulism 
are  often  confounded,  while  the  cataleptic  state  retains 
its  peculiar  characteristics.  Sometimes  the  confusion  is 
still  greater,  and  the  neuro-muscular  phenomena  remain 
the  same,  whatever  be  the  phase  of  hypnotism." 

Dumontpallier,  Magnin,  and  Bottey*  have  insisted 
on  this  confusion  of  states.  They  ascertained  that 
some  hysterical  subjects  display  an  aptitude  for  contrac- 
ture throughout  the  periods  of  hypnosis.  They  also  found 
that  there  was  often  a  complete  confusion  between  the 

*  Magnin,  Effets  des  excitations  periphd'n'ques  cliez  les  hijst€ro- 
epileptiques  a  V^at  de  veille  et  d'hypnotisme  (^These  de  Paris,  1881);  Le 
Magndlisme  Animal  (Paris,  1884). 


IMPERFECT  FORMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  165 

two  kinds  of  contractures  distinguished  by  Charcot; 
excitement  of  the  skin  and  profound  excitement  of  the 
muscles  produced  the  same  muscular  phenomena  in  all 
degrees  of  hypnosis.  This  phenomenon  may  also  occur 
under  the  slightest  excitement,  such  as  the  ticking  of 
a  watch,  the  noise  of  a  telephone,  the  wind  of  capillary 
bellows,  a  drop  of  ether  or  of  warm  water,  a  ray  of  light 
falling  directly  on  the  skin,  or  reflected  from  a  mirror. 
Finally,  all  the  peripheral  excitements  capable  of  producing 
contracture  are  also  capable  of  putting  an  end  to  it. 

Pitres  has  also  described  another  deviation  from  the 
normal  type  in  what  he  terms  the  catalepsoid  state,  when 
the  eyes  are  closed,  which  he  has  observed  in  some  of  his 
hysterical  patients. 

We  pass  from  hysterical  hypnosis  to  the  hypnosis  of 
persons  who  are,  or  are  assumed  to  be,  in  perfect  health. 
We  mean  by  these  words  persons  who  display  none  of 
the  well-known  signs  of  hysteria.  Many  experimenters 
have  observed  persons  of  both  sexes,  of  all  ages  and 
conditions,  without  taking  any  note  of  their  pathological 
antecedents,  which  involve  such  minute  research,  that 
nothing  can  be  said  about  them  without  a  careful  ex- 
amination.* Richet,  who  holds  that  no  one  is  absolutely 
insensitive  to  magnetism,  pursued  this  course  as  early  as 
1875.  He  hypnotizes  his  subjects  by  exerting  a  strong 
pressure  on  their  thumbs  for  three  or  four  minutes,  and 
then  by  making  passes  in  a  downward  direction  over 
the  head,  forehead,  and  shoulders.  After  a  while,  this 
prolonged    process   produces    what   Richet   terms   som- 

♦  Cli.  F  ere,  La  Famille  mforopathiqiie  (Archives  de  Neurologie,  1 884) ; 
Nervous  Troubles,  as  foreshadowed  in  the  child  (^Brain,  July,  1885); 
Dejerinc,  De  Vh^redit€  dans  les  maladies  du  systeme  nerveux,  1886. 


166  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

nambulism.  This  state  is  capable  of  presenting  three 
degrees  of  intensity.* 

The  first  degree,  the  period  of  torpor,  occurs  after 
passes  have  been  made  for  a  period  varying  from  five  to 
fifteen  minutes.  The  subject  begins  by  being  unable  to 
raise  his  eyes,  and  these  become  red  and  moist :  some- 
times the  muscles  show  a  tendency  to  contracture  under 
mechanical  excitement. 

The  second  degree,  or  period  of  excitement,  is  not 
attained  at  once,  but  after  a  series  of  magnetizations ; 
in  this  state  the  subject  is  asleep,  yet  able  to  answer 
questions.  During  this  period,  hallucinations  may  be 
produced,  acts  may  be  suggested,  and  there  is  forget- 
fulness  on  awaking. 

The  third  degree  constitutes  the  period  of  stupor; 
automatism  prevails,  together  with  insensibility  to  pain 
and  the  muscular  phenomena  of  contracture  and  of  cata- 
lepsy, over  which  the  author  passes  too  rapidly. 

Some  recent  writers,  Bremaud  and  Bottey,  have 
returned  to  this  question  of  the  hypnotism  of  healthy 
individuals,  and  have  more  accurately  defined  the  fea- 
tures of  Richet's  clinical  description.  They  state  that 
if  some  other  processes  are  substituted  for  the  passes, 
such  as  pressure  on  the  closed  eyes  or  on  the  scalp,  or 
the  prolonged  and  fixed  gaze  on  some  brilliant  object,  in 
short,  if  the  means  in  use  for  hysterical  hypnosis  are 
employed,  it  is  easy  to  produce  in  healthy  individuals, 
not  only  somnambulism,  but  also  lethargy  and  catalepsy, 
and  there  is  no  sensible  difference  between  these  states 
and  those  produced  in  hysterical  subjects. 

Bremaud  was  also  able  to  produce  in  men  presumed 

♦  Richet,  L'Homme  et  V Intelligence.    Paris,  1884. 


IMPERFECT  FORMS  OF   HYPNOSIS.  167 

to  be  perfectly  healthy,  a  new  state  which  he  terms 
fascination.  It  is  effected  by  fixing  the  eyes  on  a 
brilliant  point ;  the  subject  appears  to  fall  into  a  sort 
of  stupor,  he  follows  the  experimenter,  and  servilely 
imitates  all  his  movements,  gestures,  and  words;  he  is 
also  sensitive  to  suggestion.  On  the  physical  side  con- 
tractures produced  by  excitement  of  the  muscles  may  be 
observed,  and  cataleptic  plasticity  is  absent. 

Bremaud  considers  that  fascination  represents  hypno- 
tism in  its  lowest  degree  of  intensity.  This  nervous 
state  cannot  be  effected  in  women,  nor  in  men  who  have 
been  the  subjects  of  repeated  experiments.  In  propor- 
tion to  the  increase  of  impressionability  in  the  subject, 
he  over-leaps  this  first  stage,  and  passes  at  once  into 
catalepsy.* 

These  experiments  are  completely  at  variance  with 
the  results  to  which  Bernheim,  Liegeois,  and  Beaunis 
arrived.  Their  experiments,  like  the  foregoing,  were 
made  on  all  kinds  of  subjects,  without  distinction  of  age, 
sex,  and  pathological  condition.  Their  observations  do 
not,  in  fact,  amount  to  much,  exclusive  of  the  facts  of 
suggestion. 

By  whatever  process  a  subject  is  hypnotized,  the 
moment  arrives  when  his  eyes  are  closed,  and  his  arms 
fall  slackly  down.  In  this  state  the  subject  can  hear  the 
experimenter.  Although  motionless  and  with  a  counten- 
ance as  inert  as  that  of  a  mask,  he  hears  everything, 
whether  he  remembers  it  or  not  when  he  awakes.  Of  ') 
this  we  have  a  proof  in  the  fact  that  the  one  word  ) 
"Awake!"  uttered  once,  or  repeated  several  times, 
awakes  him,  without  touching  or  breathing  on  his  eyes. 

♦  Bremaud,  Soci€t€  de  Biologie,  1883,  pp.  537,  635 ;  1884,  p.  169. 


«^  .     .  I         ft    It  .  A 


168  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

In  this  state  the  subject  can  receive  all  sorts  of 
suggestions.  If  a  limb  is  raised,  and  he  is  told  that  it 
canncfc  be  lowered,  he  passively  retains  it  in  the  attitude 
in  which  it  has  been  placed.  If,  again,  a  given  movement 
is  given  to  his  limbs,  that  movement  goes  on  indefinitely 
until  it  is  arrested.  In  most  subjects  there  is  complete 
anaesthesia;  the  skin  may  be  pricked  with  a  pin,  and 
they  do  not  appear  to  be  aware  of  it.  Those  who  remain 
sensible  to  pain  may  be  rendered  insensible  to  it  by 
suggestion. 

These  observers  have  not  ascertained  that  the  act  of 
opening  or  closing  of  the  eyes,  or  that  friction  of  the 
scalp  modifies  the  phenomena  in  any  way,  or  that  it 
develops  them  in  subjects  in  whom  they  cannot  be  pro- 
duced by  suggestion  alone.  They  have  only  ascertained 
that  the  degree  in  which  subjects  are  liable  to  suggestion 
varies  with  the  individual  Some  only  close  their  eyes, 
with  or  without  torpor;  in  others  the  limbs  are  relaxed, 
inert,  or  incapable  of  spontaneous  movement ;  others  re- 
tain the  attitudes  given  them ;  contracture  by  suggestion 
and  other  suggested  and  automatic  movements  are  dis- 
played in  other  cases.  Finally,  automatic  obedience, 
anaesthesia,  illusions,  and  hallucinations  mark  the  succes- 
sive stages  to  which  suggestion  may  be  carried,  of  which 
somnambulism  is  the  culminating  point.  It  is  only  in 
this  latter  state,  in  which  the  phenomena  of  suggestion 
are  most  fully  developed,  that  there  is  forgetfulness  on 
awaking.  About  one  hypnotic  subject  out  of  six  attains 
to  this  degree  of  profound  somnambulism. 

It  appears  that  the  performers  of  these  experiments 
at  Nancy  only  observed  in  their  subjects  the  phenomena 
of  suggestion  which  belong  to  somnambulism ;  they  hold 


IMPERFECT  FORMS  OF  HYPNOSIS.  169 

that  all-  hypnotism  is  summed  up  in  suggestion.  Not 
content  with  explaining  what  they  have  observed,  they  ^  ^ 
repeatedly  manifest  the  intention  of  including  within  the  ^-  ^ 
sphere  of  suggestion  the  lethargy  and  catalepsy  described 
by  other  writers.  But  we  may  set  aside  the  interpreta- 
tion, and  content  ourselves  with  the  facts.  It  is  \eYy 
strange  that  the  observers  at  Nancy  have  not  seen  con- 
tracture produced  in  hypnotized  subjects  by  excitement 
of  the  nerves,  tendons,  or  muscles.  Eichet  has  often  met 
with  this  common  phenomenon  in  his  experiments  on 
healthy  subjects;  it  has  been  constantly  observed  by 
Bottey ;  Braid  himself  repeatedly  mentions  it ;  and  yet 
Bernheim,  whose  experiments  were  performed  on  similar 
subjects,  is  unacquainted  with  it.  If  it  is  true  that  none 
of  his  subjects,  whatever  be  the  excitements  to  which 
they  are  subjected,  displayed  any  physical  characteristics 
of  hypnosis,  and  that  everything  was  summed  up  in  the 
phenomena  of  suggestion,  we  are  compelled  to  infer  that 
there  is  no  scientific  proof  that  his  subjects  were  really 
hypnotized.  Our  disbelief  is  not  absolute ;  we  do  not 
assert  that  these  observers  only  had  to  do  with  impostors, 
nor  do  we  throw  doubt  on  their  experiments  in  general, 
but  if  we  had  to  make  a  medico-legal  examination  of 
one  of  their  subjects,  we  should  find  it  hard  to  decide 
whether  he  was  truthful  or  a  deceiver. 

We  are  not  disposed  to  believe  that  subjects  at  Nancy 
difier  from  those  at  Paris.  In  reality,  the  differences  are 
not  due  to  the  subjects,  but  to  the  experimenters;  they 
come  from  the  mode  of  culture,  and  still  more  from  the 
processes  of  study.  As  we  have  repeatedly  said,  the 
results  of  experiments  depend  on  the  methods  by  which 
they  are  carried  on.     If  suggestion  is  employed  as  the 


170  ANJMAL  MAGNETISM. 

sole  process,  only  the  effects  of  suggestion  will  be  obtained; 
and  thus  it  was  at  Nancy.  But  if  we  apply  ourselves  to 
the  study  of  physical  characteristics,  they  may  sometimes 
be  observed  at  the  outset,  and  they  may  also  be  gradually 
developed  in  some  other  subjects. 


(    171    ) 


CHAPTER  yill. 

GENERAL  STUDY   OF  SUGGESTION. 

I.  Definition  of  suggestion — Suggestion  and  dreams — Distinction  between 

the  experimental  processes  by  ideas  and  by  peripheral  excitement — 
The  persons  capable  of  receiving  suggestions — Tlie  conditions  of 
receptiveness  :  mental  inertia,  psychical  hyperexcitability — Sugges- 
tion during  hypnotism — Suggestion  during  the  waking  state — Diffe- 
rent kinds  of  suggestion — Speech — Gesture — Muscular  sense — Auto- 
suggestion— Relation  between  the  idea  suggested  and  the  peripheral 
excitement — Error  made  by  those  who  see  suggestion  in  everything. 

II.  The  method — Simulation — Voluntary  suggestions — Unconscious  sug- 

gestion— Comparison  between  the  phenomena  of  suggestion  and  the 
facts  of  positive  science. 
I  [I.  Effects  of  suggestion— Modifications  of  vegetative  functions— The  sug- 
gestion of  psychical  phenomena — Classification — Positive  suggestions 
hallucination,  and  action — Psychological  analysis  of  their  produc- 
tion—Law of  negative  suggestions— Law  of  psychical  inhibition — 
Post-hypnotic  hallucinations — Forgetfulness  of  the  act  of  suggestion. 

I. 

Definition  of  Suggestion. — We  have  seen  that  the 
hypnotic  sleep  approximates  to  natural  sleep  in  its  mode 
of  production  and  in  some  of  its  symptoms.  This  com- 
parison may  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  theory  of 
the  facts  of  suggestion.  These  facts  are  at  first  sight 
astonishing,  unintelligible,  and  sometimes  indeed  they 
appear  incredible.     The  question  arises  how  it  should  be 


172  ANDIAL  MAGNETISM. 

possible  for  one  person  to  exert  over  another  the  power 
of  making  him  speak,  act,  think,  and  feel  as  it  pleases  the 
expeiimenter  to  dictate. 

In  order  to  make  a  systematic  study,  we  must  proceed 
from  what  is  better  known,  to  what  is  less  known.  As 
we  have  repeatedly  said,  the  psychical  phenomena  of 
hypnosis  can  only  be  understood  when  they  are  compared 
with  the  dreams  of  natural  sleep.  The  effects  produced 
on  hypnotized  subjects  by  suggestion  are  nothing  but  a 
dream,  produced  and  directed  by  the  experimenter.  This  is 
a  legitimate  comparison,  since  it  is  possible  to  modify  the 
dreams  of  a  person  who  is  naturally  asleep.  Maury  per- 
formed some  striking  experiments  on  himself  to  illustrate 
this  fact.*  He  begged  a  person  to  remain  beside  him  in 
the  evening,  and  as  soon  as  he  fell  asleep  to  excite  certain 
sensations  in  him,  without  telling  him  what  they  were 
to  be,  and  to  wake  him  after  giving  him  time  to  dream. 
These  dreams,  produced  by  sensorial  excitements,  did  not 
differ  from  those  obtained  from  hysterical  hypnotized 
subjects,  by  means  of  suggestion.  On  one  occasion 
eau-de-cologne  was  given  to  him  to  smell ;  he  dreamed 
that  he  was  in  a  perfumer's  shop,  then  the  idea  of  the 
perfume  aroused  that  of  the  East,  and  he  dreamed  that 
he  was  in  Jean  Farina's  shop  at  Cairo.  The  nape  of  his 
neck  was  gently  pinched,  and  he  dreamed  that  a  blister 
was  applied  to  it,  which  recalled  to  mind  the  physician 
who  had  attended  him  in  childhood.  When  a  hot  iron 
was  brought  near  his  face  he  dreamed  of  stokers.  When 
he  was  asleep  on  another  occasion,  a  person  present 
ordered  him  in  a  loud  voice  to  take  a  match,  and  he 
dreamed  that  he  went  voluntarily  to  find  one. 
*  Maury,  Sommeil  et  Eeves,  p.  1 27. 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  173 

Another  resemblance  of  a  diflferent  kind  may  be 
established  between  the  psychical  phenomena  of  natural 
sleep  and  those  of  hypnotic  sleep.  As  one  of  the  present 
writers  has  shown,*  in  the  case  of  many  patients  the 
pathogenic  idea,  the  first  manifestation  of  delirium, 
may  originate  in  the  waking  state,  but  it  is  generally 
confirmed  by  the  dreams  of  natural  sleep,  in  which  it  is 
re-echoed  with  added  strength.  Clinical  observation 
therefore  shows  that  the  experiments  so  easily  performed 
during  the  artificial  sleep  may  be  spontaneously  realized 
in  the  normal  sleep. 

The  region  of  suggestion  has  a  wide  range.  There 
is  not  a  single  fact  of  our  mental  life  which  may  not  be 
artificially  reproduced  and  magnified  by  this  means.  It 
is  easy  to  understand  how  much  psychologists  may  gain 
from  this  method,  which  introduces  experiment  into 
psychology. 

Before  2:oinor  further,  we  must  define  the  extent  and 
limits  of  suggestion,  by  a  more  precise  definition  than 
the  somewhat  vague  and  summary  one  given  above. 
Strictly  speaking,  suggestion  is  an  operation  producifig 
a  given  effect  on  a  subject  by  acting  on  his  intelligence. 
Every  suggestion  essentially  consists  in  acting  on  a 
person  by  means  of  an  idea ;  every  efiect  suggested  is 
the  result  of  a  phenomenon  of  ideation,  but  it  must  be 
added  that  the  idea  is  an  epi-phenomenon ;  taken  by 
itself,  it  is  only  the  indicative  sign  of  a  certain  physio- 
logical "process,  solely  capable  of  producing  a  material 
effect. 

This  characteristic  will  generally  enable  us  to  recog- 

♦  Ch.  Fere,  La  Medicine   dHmagination  (^Progres  Medical,    1881,  p. 
309  ;  1886,  pp.  717,  741,  etc.). 


174  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

nize  what  is  and  what  is  not  suggestion,  although  this  is 
often  a  very  difficult  question.  Thus,  when  striking  the 
tendons,  or  kneading  the  muscles  makes  it  possible  to 
form  a  contracture  of  the  arm  of  an  hysterico-lethargic 
patient,  no  suggestion  is  made,  since  the  contracture 
results  from  a  physical  action,  into  which  the  subject's 
mind  does  not  appear  to  enter.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  experimenter  approaches  the  subject,  and  saj^s,  with- 
out touching  him,  "  Your  arm  is  bent  and  stiffened,  and 
you  cannot  straighten  it,"  the  contracture  which  occurs 
in  consequence  of  these  words  results  from  a  psychical 
action.  The  experimenter's  command  only  produces  its 
effect  by  traversing  the  subject's  intelligence;  it  is  the 
idea  of  contracture,  entering  into  the  subject's  mind, 
which  has  produced  the  contracture,  and  this  is  really 
suggestion.  From  this  point  of  view,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  theory  of  suggestion  infuses  new  life  into  the 
old  philosophic  question  of  the  action  of  the  mind  upon 
the  body,  and  that  at  the  same  time  it  throws  fresh  light 
on  the  large  group,  still  so  obscure,  of  diseases  of  the 
iifiagination. 

We  give  another  example.  Like  contracture,  paralytic 
movements  may  be  produced  in  two  different  ways.  If  in 
a  hysterical  subject  the  fixed  end  of  a  vibrating  tuning- 
fork  is  applied  to  certain  points  of  the  vault  of  the  cranium, 
a  transitory  excitement  of  motor  force  takes  place  in  the 
subject's  arm  which  soon  passes  into  complete  and  flaccid 
paralysis.*  In  this  case  the  paralysis  is  the  direct  result 
of  the  vibratory  movement  transmitted  by  the  tuning- 
fork  through  the  thickness  of  the  skull  to  the  brain :  tha 

*  Ch.  Fer^,  Inhibition  et  Epuisement  (Bull.  Soc.  de  Biologies  1886,  pp. 
178, 195,  220). 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF   SUGGESTION.  175 

subject's  intelligence  takes  no  part  in  it;  the  experiment, 
although  made  upon  his  body,  has  not  affected  his  mind; 
there  is  no  suggestion.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  idea  is 
impressed  upon  the  subject  that  his  arm  is  affected  by 
paralysis,  the  paralysis  which  ensues  is  of  a  psychical 
nature,  since  it  results  solely  from  the  subject's  conviction 
that  he  is  paralysed.  It  does  not  result  from  a  physical 
shock,  or  traumatism,  but  from  a  phenomenon  of  ideation. 
A  suggestion  has  been  made. 

The  analysis  of  this  last  example  makes  it  possible 
to  avoid  a  confusion  made  by  some  writers.  It  has  been 
too  readily  admitted  that  every  hypnotic  process  which 
has  its  seat  in  the  brain,  proceeds  from  a  phenomenon 
of  suggestion,  and  this  has  led  to  the  opinion  that 
lethargy,  catalepsy,  and  hysterical  somnambulism,  which 
are  perhaps  due  to  reflex  cerebral  action,  are  the  pure 
and  simple  products  of  suggestion.  The  fact  just 
mentioned  disposes  of  this  error.  The  paralysis  induced 
by  physical  vibration  and  the  paralysis  induced  by 
suggestion  probably  both  result  from  modifications  of 
the  cortical  substance  of  the  brain ;  they  are  conse- 
quently reflex  cerebral  acts.  But  the  two  cases  are 
widely  different.  Paralysis  by  suggestion  demands  the 
aid  of  the  subject's  intelligence,  and  if  the  function  of 
ideation  were  fov  any  reason  suspended,  this  kind  of 
paralysis  could  no  longer  be  produced. 

The  study  of  hypnosis  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts,  distinguished  by  the  different  processes  which  are 
employed.  The  first  part  includes  the  hypnotic  phe- 
nomena produced  by  physical  excitements,  or  sensations, 
which  were  the  subject  of  the  two  preceding  chapters; 
the  second  part  includes  the  hypnotic  phenomena  pro- 


176  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

duced  by  ideas,  that  is,  the  theory  of  suggestions.  These 
two  modes  of  experimentation  are  parallel,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  say  which  of  the  two  has  the  widest  extent. 

Those  liable  to  Suggestion. — Suggestion  does  not  act 
with  equal  intensity  on  all  individuals.  If  you  assure 
a  person  who  is  awake,  in  normal  health,  and  perfectly 
self-possessed,  that  she  is  hungry,  she  will  reply  that 
you  are  mistaken ;  if  you  try  to  suggest  a  visual  halluci- 
nation by  asserting  that  she  has  a  book  in  her  hands, 
shew  ill  declare  that  she  does  not  see  it.  The  assertion 
only  produces  in  her  mind  a  slight  effect,  which  is  quickly 
effaced.  It  produces  an  idea  of  the  phenomenon,  not  the 
phenomenon  itself.  It  is,  in  short,  evident  that  the 
suggestion  influences  a  sound  person  no  more  than 
the  opening  of  her  eyes  would  produce  catalepsy. 

In  order  that  the  suggestion  should  succeed,  the 
subject  must  be  either  spontaneously  or  artificially  in 
a  morbid  state  of  receptivity ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  define 
with  precision  the  conditions  under  which  suggestion 
is  possible.  Two  have  been  given,  of  which  the  first 
is  the  mental  inertia  of  the  subject.  It  has  been  said 
that  in  an  hypnotic  subject  the  field  of  consciousness 
is  completely  vacant.  A  state  is  produced,  and  since 
there  is  no  obstacle — neither  the  power  of  arrest  nor  that 
of  antagonism, — the  idea  suggested  dominates  the  sleep- 
ing consciousness.  This  explanation  has  been  given 
by  Heidenhain,  Richet,  Ribot,  and  others,  yet  we  doubt 
whether  it  is  altogether  in  harmony  with  the  facts.  If 
the  limitation  to  a  single  idea  is  realized  in  cataleptic 
subjects,  it  is  much  more  rare  in  the  case  of  somnam- 
bulists. We  believe  that  the  aptitude  for  suggestions 
is  caused  by  a  second  phenomenon — by  psychical  hyper- 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  177 

excitability.  In  our  opinion,  if  the  idea  suggested 
exerts  an  absolute  power  over  the  intelligence,  the 
senses,  and  the  movements  of  the  hypnotized  subject,  it 
is  especially  due  to  its  intensity.  But  we  admit  that  it 
is  dijSicult  to  resolve  the  question,  and  we  prefer  to  leave 
it  open. 

The  number  of  persons  liable  to  suggestions  is  im- 
mense ;  the  liability  is  evinced,  not  only  in  cases  of 
hypnosis  and  of  natural  sleep,  but  also  in  some  forms 
of  intoxication  by  alcohol,  and  haschich,  and  in  the 
waking  state.  We  only  propose,  however,  to  consider 
hypnotized  subjects. 

The  aptitude  to  receive  suggestions  is  strongly 
developed  by  hypnotism,  but,  as  we  have  already  said, 
it  does  not  occur  in  all  phases  of  hypnosis,  only  in 
catalepsy  and  somnambulism.  The  suggestions  made 
to  a  cataleptic  subject  are  simple,  automatic,  inevitable ; 
the  reason  takes  part  in  those  of  somnambulism;  the 
subject  discusses  and  eularges  on  them,  and  sometimes 
even  offers  resistance.  We  shall  have  to  consider  these 
shades  of  differences  whenever  we  have  to  do  with 
interesting  suggestions,  and  we  shall  for  the  most  part 
content  ourselves  with  describing  the  suggestions  of 
somnambulism. 

After  awaking,  the  subject  is  still  sensitive  to  sug- 
gestion ;  this  fact  has  long  been  known,  and  is  mentioned 
by  Braid  among  other  writers.  Of  late  years  it  has  been 
studied  by  Richet,  Bernheim,  Bottey,  etc.  It  is  possible, 
not  only  to  make  suggestions  to  subjects  in  the  waking 
state,  but  also  to  persons  who  have  not  been  hypnotized 
at  all.  Learned  men  have  been  agitated  by  these  latter 
experiments,  which   have  aroused  in  them  doubt  and 


178  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

dissatisfaction.  They  have  no  difficulty  in  admitting 
that. suggestions  may  be  made  to  hypnotized  subjects, 
since  they  are  not  in  normal  health,  but  they  cannot 
understand  how  they  should  be  made  to  individuals  who 
are  awake,  not  under  hypnotism,  and  that  this  should 
be  done  by  modes  of  action  in  daily  use  in  our  relations 
to  one  another.  The  question  arises  whether  individuals 
capable  of  receiving  suggestions  in  their  waking  state 
are  in  common  life  liable  to  submit  automatically  to  the 
influence  of  others ;  whether  they  are  weak  in  mind ; 
what  is  their  physical  and  moral  state,  and  if  there  is 
anything  peculiar  in  their  waking  state  and  hereditary 
antecedents.  These  are  the  questions  stated  by  Janet, 
and  they  have  not  as  yet  received  any  reply.  The  possi- 
bility of  making  suggestions  to  normal  subjects  must, 
however,  be  admitted  if,  as  one  of  the  present  writers  has 
done,  we  refer  suggestion  to  the  act  of  attention.  When 
attention  is  sufficiently  intense,  the  period  of  reaction 
may  disappear,  and  may  even  become  negative ;  that  is, 
the  reaction  may  precede  the  excitement.  An  intense 
mental  representation,  whether  arising  spontaneously,  or 
induced  by  suggestion,  may  therefore  produce  a  reaction 
irrespective  of  any  excitement.* 

Different  kinds  of  Suggestions. — If  it  is  the  character- 
istic of  suggestion  to  address  itself  to  the  subject's 
intelligence,  it  follows  that  there  are  as  many  forms  of 
suggestion  as  there  are  modes  of  entering  into  relations 
with  another  person. 

The  experimenter  may  begin  by  employing  spoken 
or  written  suggestion.  This  is  the  simplest  and  most 
convenient  means.     In  order  to  produce  an  hallucination, 

♦  Ch.  Fere,  Progres  Medical,  p.  741.   1886. 


GENEEAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  179 

it  is  enough  to  name  the  imaginary  object,  to  say  to  the 
subject,  "  There  is  a  serpent  at  your  feet  I "  and  the 
hallucination  immediately  occurs.  Verbal  assertion  is 
the  process  most  in  use,  since  in  this  way  everything 
which  human  speech  is  capable  of  expressing  may  be 
suggested,  and  it  is  also  the  most  precise. 

Gestures,  which  are  often  employed  by  some  experi- 
menters, are  a  very  inferior  means.  They  are  undoubt- 
edly fairly  successful  in  the  case  of  subjects  who  havi 
been  long  under  treatment.  Without  uttering  a  word, 
the  hallucination  of  a  serpent  may  be  produced  in  such 
subjects  by  making  an  undulatory  movement  with  the 
finger,  or  still  more  simply,  by  directing  their  eyes 
downwards.  It  also  becomes  possible  to  give  orders  by 
means  of  gestures,  to  constrain  the  subject  to  walk,  to 
follow  or  approach  the  experimenter,  to  make  him 
kneel  down,  etc.  On  pointing  to  a  hat,  the  subject 
takes  hold  of  it,  and  on  pointing  again  to  his  head  he 
puts  it  on.  He  may  also  be  made  to  take  something  out 
of  the  pocket  of  another  person.  Pitres  mentions  the 
amazing  quickness  with  which  he  has  observed  some 
subjects  divine  the  meaning  of  the  slightest  movement 
of  the  fingers,  lips,  or  eyes.  But  these  processes  are 
lacking  in  precision.  Although  it  is  probable  that  it 
is  the  psychical  and  expressive  character  of  the  gesture 
vvhich  generally  acts  upon  the  subject,  that  is,  that  it 
arouses  ideas,  we  do  not  certainly  know  that  no  other 
cause  is  at  work.  The  same  must  be  said  of  passes,  for 
when  suggestions  are  made  by  their  means,  we  do  not 
know  how  it  is  done.  But  if  suggestion  by  means  of 
gestures  is  often  vague,  it  may  be  very  intense.  When 
a  verbal  suggestion  of  movement  is  given  to  a  subject. 


180  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

the  image  of  such  movement  is  aroused  in  his  mind ; 
thifi  image,  however  intense  it  may  be,  must  always  be 
less  intense  than  the  sensation  given  to  the  same  subject 
when  the  movement  in  question  is  executed  before  his 
eyes.  The  result  of  the  two  experiments  is  therefore 
very  different.*  It  has  been  repeatedly  ascertained  that 
if  a  dynamometer  is  placed  in  a  subject's  right  hand,  and 
he  is  ordered  to  hold  it  with  all  his  might,  this  verbal 
suggestion  only  augments  his  normal  dynamometric  force 
by  a  few  degrees  ;  but  if  the  action  of  firmly  clenching 
his  fist  is  imitated  before  him,  his  muscular  force  is  not 
merely  increased,  but  doubled ;  thus  showing  that  in 
certain  cases  the  suggestions  given  by  gestures  afford 
more  intense  results  than  it  is  possible  to  obtain  by 
words  only. 

It  is  sometimes  useful  to  combine  suggestive  gestures 
with  verbal  suggestion,  or  with  the  presentation  of  an 
object.  For  instance,  a  real  object  is  presented  to  the 
subject,  of  which  the  nature  is  said  to  be  different ;  he 
is  caused  to  eat  paper,  while  told  that  it  is  a  cake;  or  it 
is  suggested  to  him  that  one  of  the  persons  present  has  a 
false  nose.  Combining  the  word  with  the  gesture  gives 
definiteness  to  the  suggestion. 

Suggestive  gestures  address  themselves  to  the  sight. 
The  other  senses  may  also  receive  impressions.  If  a  gong 
is  gently  sounded  close  to  the  ear  of  an  hypnotized  subject, 
he  thinks  that  he  hears  bells;  and  if  he  is  pricked  or 
pinched,  the  image  of  stinging  creatures  may  be  aroused. 
But  all  these  processes  are  inferior  to  that  of  speech. 

In  all  cases  in  which  the  idea  awakened  in  the 
subject  emanates  from  the  experimenter's  direct  sugges- 

*  See  Ch.  Fere,  Sensation  et  ^ouvement  (Etudes  de  psyclw-mechanique). 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.       181 

tion,  the  subject  is  in  a  state  of  direct  subjection  to  him. 
This  state  is  not  opposed  to  that  which  we  may  observ^e 
in  the  waking  state;  there  is  only  an  exaggeration  of 
phenomena,  which  makes  it  easier  to  understand  what 
occurs  in  subjects  held  to  be  of  sound  mind,  who  are 
unconsciously  influenced  by  the  will  of  another  person 
substituted  for  their  own.  Indeed  we  have  only  to 
glance  at  social  relations  in  order  to  see  that  individuals 
fall  into  two  categories — the  leaders  and  the  led — that  is, 
the  givers  and  the  recipients  of  suggestions. 

It  is  characteristic  of  suggestion  by  means  of  the 
muscular  sense,  that  it  may  be  said  to  have  its  origin  in 
the  hypnotized  subject.  If  his  limbs  are  placed  in  a 
tragic  attitude,  a  corresponding  emotion  is  displayed ;  if 
his  fists  are  clenched,  he  frowns  with  an  expression  of 
anger  ;  if  his  limbs  are  disposed  so  as  to  begin  any 
action,  it  is  carried  on  by  the  subject,  and  in  this  way  he 
may  be  made  to  climb  or  go  on  all  fours  ;  or  if  a  pen  or 
piece  of  work  is  put  into  his  hand,  he  will  write  or  sew. 
If  his  hand  is  raised,  and  the  fore-finger  is  bent,  the  idea 
occurs  to  him  that  a  bird  is  perching  on  his  finger,  and 
this  hallucination  is  developed.  A  slight  movement  by 
the  experimenter  will  carry  on  this  silent  suggestion;  the 
subject  then  imagines  that  the  bird  has  taken  flight,  and 
he  runs  about  the  room  trying  to  catch  it.  If  the  hands 
of  a  female  subject  are  crossed  upon  her  bosom,  it  sug- 
gests the  idea  that  she  is  holding  an  infant.  All  these 
facts  are  included  in  the  same  formula;  the  attitude 
given  to  the  subject's  limbs  is  accompanied  by  definite 
muscular  impressions,  which  arouse  corresponding  ideas 
in  the  brain. 

Since  every  suggestion  has  its  origin  in  a  sensorial 
9 


182  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

impression  which  is  experienced  by  the  subject,  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  this  impression  may  be  produced  by  an  external 
object  without  the  intervention  of  the  experimenter. 
This  mode  of  suggestion  is  inconvenient,  and  therefore 
rarely  employed,  but  it  is  sometimes  spontaneously  dis- 
played. Bennett  mentions  the  case  of  a  butcher  who 
wished  to  place  a  heavy  piece  of  meat  on  a  hook  above 
his  head ;  he  slipped,  the  hook  caught  him  by  the  arm, 
and  he  remained  suspended.  He  was  taken  down  half- 
dead,  his  sleeve  was  cut  open,  and,  although  he  complained 
of  great  suffering,  as  soon  as  the  arm  was  exposed,  it 
was  found  to  be  absolutely  intact ;  the  hook  had  only 
penetrated  his  coat-sleeve,  This  is  an  instance  of  sug- 
gestion without  an  experimenter,  and  many  others  might 
be  given.  We  shall  speak  presently  of  the  paralysis 
induced  in  hypnotic  subjects  by  suggestion.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  some  cases  of  hysterical  paralysis,  termed 
traumatic, — that  is,  caused  by  a  shock, — are  also  due  to 
suggestion,  since  the  patient  cannot  divest  himself  of  the 
idea  that  such  a  severe  shock  must  produce  paralysis. 

These  latter  facts  pass  gradually  into  those  to  which 
th6  name  of  auto-suggestion  has  been  given.  There 
are  cases  in  which  suggestion  has  its  origin  in  the 
subject's  intelligence;  in  which  the  suggestion  is  made 
by  himself  Instead  of  being  the  result  of  an  external 
impressiojj,  as  in  the  case  of  verbal  suggestion,  the 
suggestion  results  from  an  internal  impression,  such  as 
a  fixed  idea,  pr  deliripus  conception,  A  few  examples 
will  explain  this  bettqr  than  dry  definitions.  A  subject 
imagined  that  she  was  opposing  by  force  the  halluci- 
nation suggested  by  one  of  the  present  writers,  and  that 
she  had  given  him  a  blow  on  the  face.   When  her  supposed 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  183 

adversary  entered  the  room  on  the  following  day,  she 
imagined  that  she  saw  a  bruise  upon  his  cheek.  This 
halluciuation  was  derived  from  the  former  one,  just  as 
a  conclusion  is  derived  from  its  premisses,  and  it  may  be 
taken  as  a  type  of  auto-suggestion.  The  subject  must 
have  unconsciously  argued  after  this  fashion :  I  gave 
him  a  blow  on  the  cheek,  of  which  therefore  he  must 
bear  the  mark.  Another  subject,  coming  out  of  a  state 
of  profound  lethargy,  which  had  only  lasted  for  five  or 
six  minutes,  imagined  that  she  had  been  asleep  for 
several  hours.  We  encouraged  the  illusion  by  saying 
that  it  was  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  although  it  was 
in  reality  nine  in  the  morning.  When  she  heard  this, 
the  patient  felt  extremely  hungry,  and  begged  us  to  let 
her  go  to  get  food.  This  was  a  kind  of  organic  hallu- 
cination— the  hallucination  of  hunger — suggested  to  the 
subject  by  herself.  She  unconsciously  reasoned  some- 
what after  this  manner :  It  is  two  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon; I  have  eaten  nothing  since  I  got  up,  and  am 
therefore  dying  of  hunger.  This  imaginary  hunger  was 
soon  satisfied  by  an  equally  imaginary  meal.  We  sug- 
gested that  there  was  a  plate  of  cakes  on  a  corner  of  the 
table,  of  which  the  subject  might  partake,  and  at  the 
end  of  five  minutes  her  hunger  was  appeased.  These 
examples  of  auto-suggestion  are  derived  from  halluci- 
nation, and  we  now  give  one  belonging  to  a  different 
order  of  ideas.  We  approached  a  hypnotized  subject, 
and  addressed  her  as  follows:  "A  serious  accident  has 
just  befallen  you.  Do  you  remember  it?  Your  foot 
slipped  in  crossing  the  court-yard,  and- you  fell  upon  your 
hip.  You  must  have  hurt  yourself  very  much."  The 
subject  instantly  felt  a  severe  pain  in  the  hip  and  began 


184  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

to  moan,  and  also,  suggesting  to  herself  the  natural  con- 
sequences of  the  fall,  she  gave  herself  a  slight  paralysis 
of  the  limb,  and  limped  on  awaking. 

The  general  conclusion  to  be  derived  from  all  these 
facts  and  experiments  is,  that  suggestion  consists  in 
introducing,  cultivating,  and  confirming  an  idea  in  the 
mind  of  the  subject  of  experiment.  In  reply  to  the 
inquiry.  What  is  meant  by  an  idea,  and  what  latent  force 
does  it  possess  in  order  to  affect  some  individuals  so 
powerfully  ?  we  must  repeat  that  the  idea  resolves  itself 
into  an  image,  and  the  image  into  a  revival  of  the  sensa- 
tion. It  consists  in  the  psychical  renewal  of  a  peripheral 
sensation  already  experienced  by  the  subject.  This 
enables  us  to  understand  its  power ;  the  idea  is,  strictly 
speaking,  only  an  appearance,  but  there  lurks  behind 
it  the  energy  excited  by  a  physical,  anterior  excitement. 

This  point  of  view  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  it  is 
possible  to  produce,  by  simple  physical  excitements,  that 
is,  by  sensations,  almost  all  the  eflfects  which  have  hitherto 
been  produced  by  suggestion,  that  is,  by  ideas.  Thus, 
instead  of  producing  or  putting  an  end  to  paralysis  by 
speech,  it  may  be  produced  by  a  shock  to  the  limb  or 
on  the  skull  (Charcot),  and  it  may  be  terminated  by 
employing  the  same  process.  The  repetition  of  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  tuning-fork  represents  the  shock  of  trauma- 
tism. Hysterical  anaesthesia  may  also  be  produced  and 
destroyed  by  analogous  processes.*  The  movements  may 
also  in  some  cases  be  produced  by  excitement  of  the 
scalp.  We  cannot  here  give  full  details,  and  only 
wish   to  show  that   suggestion  may  be  referred  to  the 

*  Ch.    Fere,  Note  pour  servir  a  Vhistoire    de    Vamhlyopie   liyderiqne 
{Bulletin  de  la  Soc.  de  Biologie,  1886,  p.  389). 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  185 

peripheral  excitement  in  which  it  has  its  source.  It 
is  precisely  because  it  produces  in  the  nervous  centres 
of  some  subjects  the  same  dynamic  modifications,  that 
suggestion  is  able  to  efiect  all  the  phenomena  which 
result  from  peripheral  excitements.  We  are  reminded 
of  an  old  saying  which  is  not  yet  obsolete,  Nihil  est  in 
intellectu  quod  non  prius  fuerit  in  sensu. 

In  our  day  the  power  of  suggestion  has  been  so 
firmly  established  that  some  people  have  maintained 
that  it  is  to  this  we  must  ascribe  the  action  of  sesthesi- 
ogenic  and  dynamogenic  agents,  etc.,  employed  for 
peripheral  excitements.  The  reality  of  the  process  of 
cure  by  these  agents  has  been  denied,  and  it  is  thought 
that  suggestion  will  explain  the  singular  phenomenon  of 
transfer,  discovered  by  Gell4  and  afterwards  studied  by 
a  commission  of  the  Societe  de  Biologie  ;  what  Carpenter 
ascribed  to  expectant  attention  is  now  ascribed  to  sug- 
gestion. This  error  is  chiefly  due  to  the  idea  that  if 
suggestion  will  reproduce  any  given  phenomenon  which 
was  previously  ascribed  to  a  physical  excitement,  there- 
fore suggestion  is  its  true  cause.  But  this  argument 
is  weak.  It  might  as  well  be  said  that  since  it  is  possible 
to  satisfy  a  somnambulist's  hunger  with  an  imaginary 
meal,  nourishment  is  at  all  times  unnecessary  for  him. 

Moreover,  this  opinion  does  not  possess  the  merit  of 
simplicity  which  is  claimed  for  it,  since  it  is  as  difficult 
to  understand  why  the  simple  idea  of  paralysis  should 
paralyse,,  as  to  understand  why  a  shock  to  the  skull 
should  produce  the  same  effect.  Besides,  in  ascribing 
everything  to  the  idea,  we  ignore  the  fact  that  it 
is  a  secondary  and  derivative  phenomenon.  To  main- 
tain that  the   idea  is    everything,  and   the   peripheral 


186  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

excitement  notliing,  would  be  equivalent  to  maintaining 
that  the  idea  is  a  phenomenon  entirely  independent  of 
the  sensorial  functions ;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  revolt  against  the 
grand  theory  of  the  relations  between  sensations  and 
images  which  dominates  modern  psychology.  Such  an 
opinion  is  also  opposed  to  physiology,  which  teaches  us 
that  several  functions — the  secretions  of  sweat,  tears,  etc. 
— may  become  active  by  means  both  of  physical  and 
mental  causes,  and  that  the  reality  of  the  one  does  not 
exclude  the  other. 

11. 

We  now  come  to  the  important  question  of  the 
method. 

Such  a  book  as  this  cannot  include  within  its  narrow 
limits  the  innumerable  details  of  hypnotic  experimenta- 
tion. Since  it  is  necessary  to  restrict  the  exposition  of 
facts,  we  think  it  well,  by  way  of  compensation,  to  throw 
light  on  the  questions  of  method,  which  constitute  the 
philosophic  side  of  the  subject. 

The  study  of  hypnotism  bristles  with  difficulties, 
although  this  has  not  occurred  to  the  numerous  persons 
who  have  expected  to  find  in  these  questions  the 
occasion  of  a  brilliant  and  easy  success.  Although 
nothing  is  more  simple  than  the  invention  of  dramatic 
experiments,  which  strike  the  vulgar  with  fear  and 
astonishment,  it  is  on  the  other  hand  very  difficult,  in 
many  cases,  to  find  the  true  formula  of  the  experi- 
ment which  will  give  its  result  with  convincing  accuracy. 

Speaking  generally,  the  method  is  the  same  in  the 
study  of  physical  phenomena,  and  in  that  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  suggestion.     In  order  to  obtain  constant  results, 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  187 

which  may  be  verified  at  pleasure  by  any  other  observer, 
it  is  necessary  to  define  with  the  utmost  precision  the 
physiological  and  pathological  conditions  of  the  subjects 
of  experiment,  and  the  nature  of  the  processes  by  which 
it  is  performed.  Whenever  one  of  these  two  rules  is  vio- 
lated, the  method  is  incorrect.  There  is  a  risk  of  seeing 
the  result  announced  falsified  by  another  observer,  who 
was  unable  to  reproduce  it ;  hence  the  questions  become 
confused,  personal  discussions,  which  are  necessarily 
sterile,  ensue,  and  finally  general  disbelief  is  aroused. 

The  physical  state  of  the  subject  must  first  be 
defined.  We  recommend  the  course  pursued  by  our- 
selves, of  choosing  hysterical  subjects  who  display  the 
strongly  marked  characteristics  of  profound  hypnotism. 
Any  one  who  wishes  to  verify  the  new  experiments 
in  suggestion  which  we  adduce,  must  occupy  himself 
solely  with  these  subjects.  It  is  very  important  to 
indicate  the  physical  state  of  the  subject  of  experiment, 
and  in  no  other  way  can  there  be  any  comparison  of 
results.  It  is  true  that  no  morbid  state  is  constantly 
presented  under  the  same  aspect.  Each  individual  im- 
presses a  peculiar  stamp  on  the  morbid  state  to  which  he 
is  subject.  All  diseases  are  displayed  in  forms  which 
vary  with  the  constitution  of  the  subject,  and  it  may 
even  be  said  that  each  organic  function  presents  in- 
dividual variations.  We  cannot,  therefore,  be  surprised 
that  hypnosis  is  displayed  under  various  and  more  or 
less  characteristic  aspects,  but  this  is  an  additional  reason 
for  only  comparing  similar  facts,  unless  we  wish  to  fall 
into  deplorable  confusion. 

It  is  less  easy  to  define  with  precision  the  modes  of 
operation,  since  the  experimenter  is  often  mistaken  with 


188  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

respect  to  the  means  which  he  employs.  He  believes 
that  he  is  suggesting  a  given  idea,  but  at  the  same 
moment  he  unconsciously  suggests  a  second,  which  alters 
the  first  idea,  or  else  the  subject  intervenes  in  an  active 
manner,  in  order  to  simulate  certain  phenomena,  thus 
deceiving  the  observer.  Simulation  and  unconscious 
suggestion  are  the  two  rocks  to  be  avoided  in  studying 
the  facts  of  suggestion. 

Simulation. — It  must  be  admitted  that  simulation, 
always  a  difficulty  in  the  study  of  hysteria,  is  no  where 
so  formidable  as  it  is  in  this  department  of  study.  The 
experimenter  is  safe  as  long  as  he  has  to  do  with  physical 
phenomena,  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  many  of  the 
facts  of  suggestion.  It  is  very  easy  for  the  subject  to 
simulate  an  hallucination  or  delirium.  The§e  are  internal 
phenomena  which  cannot  be  seen,  touched,  and  handled, 
like  an  objective  fact;  they  are  subjective  phenomena, 
personal  to  those  who  experience  them,  and  consequently 
they  may  readily  be  assumed.  Before  studying  them,  it 
must  be  proved  that  they  exist.  Before  observing  the 
characteristics  of  an  artificial  hallucination,  we  must 
ascertain  that  it  is  really  experienced  by  the  subject. 

The  danger  is  not  averted  by  proving  that  the  subject 
is  really  hypnotized,  for,  as  we  have  already  said,  simula- 
tion and  somnambulism  do  not  exclude  each  other.  Pitres 
has  ascertained  that  even  when  the  subject  is  asleep  she 
may  stiU  deceive.  We  must,  therefore,  exact  from  the 
facts  of  suggestion  themselves  the  proof  of  their  reality. 

Strictly  speaking,  we  might  appeal  to  moral  proofs ; 
but  these  proofs  are  only  valuable  to  those  who  know 
the  subjects ;  they  are  strictly  personal.  Moreover,  those 
who  are  satisfied  w^ith  moral  proofs  should  remember 


GENEEAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  189 

Hublier,  whose  good  faith  is  undoubted,  and  who  was 
deceived  by  his  somnambulist  subject  for  four  consecutive 
years.  It  would  be  wise  to  accept  the  lesson  of  caution 
presented  by  this  fact. 

The  method  to  be  pursued  in  such  cases  is  already 
told,  and  it  may  be  summed  up  in  one  word  :  it  is  the 
experimental  method,  and  includes  the  most  improved 
processes  of  clinical  observation  and  physiological  re- 
search. 

In  earlier  times  magnetizers  were  content  to  observe, 
and  many  in  our  day  imitate  them  in  this  respect.  After 
producing  a  given  psychical  phenomenon  by  suggestion, 
they  observe,  and  then  describe  it.  We  hold  that  this  is 
only  a  preparation  for  the  experiment,  which  remains 
incomplete.  Passive  observation  is  not  enough  to  assure 
us  of  the  subject's  sincerity,  nor  can  the  reality  of  the 
hallucination  suggested  be  proved,  if  we  only  observe 
what  the  subject  does,  and  listen  to  what  he  says.  The 
investigation  must  be  carried  further,  and  the  pheno- 
menon of  suggestion  must  be  subjected  to  oystematic 
examination,  in  order  to  separate  it  from  the  objective 
signs.  It  is  in  this  way  that  experiments  have  shown 
that  hallucinative  vision  is  modified  by  optical  instru- 
ments just  as  actual  vision  is ;  that  hallucination  with 
respect  to  a  colour  produces  the  same  effects  of  contrast 
in  colour,  as  if  it  were  actually  seen ;  that  artificial 
anaesthesia  produces  the  same  phenomena  of  colour  as 
the  spontaneous  achromatopsia  of  hysterical  patients ; 
that  the  motor  paralysis  induced  by  suggestion  is  accom- 
panied by  the  same  physical  signs  as  a  paralysis  due 
to  organic  causes.  These  hidden  characters,  which  are 
revealed   by  experiment,   are   evidently   of    a   complex 


190  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

nature;  in  order  to  understand  them  we  must  be 
acquainted  with  physics,  psychology,  and  the  physiology 
of  the  nervous  system.  The  ejffects  of  contrast  produced 
by  colour-hallucination  is  inexplicable,  unless  we  under- 
stand the  theory  of  complementary  colours.  Again,  we 
cannot  understand  the  clinical  signs  of  motor  paralysis 
produced  by  suggestion,  unless  we  are  acquainted  with 
the  nature  of  organic  paralysis ;  and  so  it  is  in  other 
cases.  There  is  no  risk  of  the  subject's  inventing  the 
characteristics  as  a  whole,  in  order  to  deceive  the  experi- 
menter, and  we  may  therefore  be  assured  that  there  is  no 
simulation,  and  this  for  two  reasons  :  first,  want  of  know* 
ledge,  and,  secondly,  want  of  power.  The  objective  signs 
mentioned  just  now  are  therefore  very  valuable ;  they 
apply  to  every  case,  and  offer  an  irrefutable  proof  of  the 
reality  of  the  experiment. 

In  short,  the  method  to  be  pursued  with  respect  to 
facts  of  suggestion  is  this :  the  artificial  psychical  phe- 
nomena must  be  matter  for  experiment,  with  the  aim  of 
rendering  these  subjective  disturbances  objective. 

A  singular  problem,  however,  occurs  with  reference  to 
simulation,  which  has  not  yet  been  examined  by  any 
observer.  The  rules  which  we  have  just  laid  down  in 
order  to  counteract  simulation  are  very  eflicacious  when 
the  simulator  does  not  experience  in  any  degree  the 
assumed  phenomenon.  For  instance,  if  the  subject  asserts 
that  he  has  a  visual  hallucination,  when  he  sees  absolutely 
nothing,  the  manifold  proofs  furnished  by  optical  instru- 
ments, complementary  colours,  etc.,  will  easily  expose  the 
fraud.  But  it  is  open  to  question  whether  simulation  in 
a  subject  liable  to  suggestion  may  not  effect  all  which  is 
effected  by  suggestion  itsel£ 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  19l 

Let  us  take  an  important  instance.  Motor  paralysis 
can  be  given  to  some  subjects  by  means  of  suggestion, 
and  it  is  a  question  whether  the  subject,  with  the 
purpose  of  deceiving  the  experimenter,  may  not  simulate 
a  motor  paralysis,  and  whether  this  assumed  paralysis 
may  not  present  the  same  objective  characters  as  that 
which  is  produced  by  suggestion.  We  think  that  this  is 
possible,  for  in  paralysis  by  suggestion  the  real  cause  of 
functional  impotence  is  the  idea  of  a  paralysis,  and  it 
matters  little  whether  this  idea  proceeds  from  suggestion 
by  the  experimenter,  or  from  simulation  by  the  subject ; 
it  is  only  essential  that  it  should  be  sufficiently  intense 
as  to  affect  the  motor  power.  It  is  in  this  way  that  we 
hold  that  simulated  phenomena  may  in  some  cases  be 
absolutely  confounded  with  real  phenomena. 

This  question  of  simulation  in  an  individual  liable 
to  suggestion  is,  in  fact,  only  one  aspect  of  a  much  larger 
question :  that  of  the  action  of  the  will  on  phenomena 
of  suggestion.  It  may -be  asked  whether  an  individual 
liable  to  suggestion  can  voluntarily  create,  modify,  and 
destroy  effects  on  himself  comparable  to  those  developed 
by  suggestion.  We  are  acquainted  with  facts  which 
enable  us  to  reply  in  the  affirmative.  We  have  seen 
subjects  who  could  at  pleasure,  and  in  the  waking  state, 
call  up  the  hallucinative  image ;  when  looking  attentively 
at  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  they  could  cause  it  to  appear 
red,  blue,  green,  etc.,  and  the  colour  thus  evoked  would 
be  sufficiently  distinct  to  give  birth  in  due  succession 
to  the  complementary  colour  which  the  subject  could 
indicate  correctly.  This  remarkable  visual  phenomenon 
differs  from  artificial  hallucination  in  one  respect;  it 
requires  a  voluntary  effort,  continued  for  a  period  vary- 


192  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

ing  between  twenty  seconds  and  a  minute,  while  a 
suggested  hallucination  occurs  almost  spontaneously. 
We  met  with  another  instance  of  voluntary  suggestion 
in  psychical  paralysis.  A  subject  to  whom  complete 
paralysis  of  the  arm  had  been  given  was  able  to  free 
herself  from  it  after  endeavouring  for  five  minutes  to 
move  the  paralysed  limb. 

Unconscious  Suggestion. — We  have  not  yet  had 
occasion  to  speak  of  this  last  kind  of  suggestion,  which 
has  a  tendency  to  introduce  itself  like  a  parasite  into 
the  experimenter's  mental  suggestions,  so  as  alto- 
gether to  vitiate  the  results.  It  should  be  known  that 
some  hysterical  subjects  become  when  hypnotized  so 
sensitive  and  such  delicate  re-agents,  that  no  word  or 
gesture  escapes  their  notice ;  they  see,  hear,  and  retain 
everything,  like  registering  instruments.  Suppose  that 
the  experimenter  has  produced  a  visual  hallucination ; 
he  then  wishes  to  ascertain  whether  this  sensorial  dis- 
turbance has  produced  any  modification  in  the  sensibility 
of  the  integuments  of  the  eye,  which  were  insensitive 
before  the  experiment.  Before  making  the  examination, 
he  says  to  one  of  his  assistants,  **I  am  going  to  see 
whether  the  cornea  and  conjunctiva  have  become 
sensitive."  The  subject  hears  what  is  said,  and  it  may 
easily,  although  not  certainl}^,  happen  that  the  words  act 
as  a  direct  suggestion  of  the  ^mptom  in  question,  so 
that  the  experimenter  runs  the  risk  of  taking  for  an 
effect  of  hallucination  what  is  the  effect  of  suggestion. 
The  subject  acts  in  good  faith,  as  well  as  the  experi- 
menter ;  there  is  no  simulation,  and  yet  there  may  be 
a  considerable  error. 

The  risk  of  unconscious  suggestion  is  not  found  in 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF    SUGGESTION.  193 

the  subjects  of  profound  hypnotism  in  all  degrees  of  hyp- 
nosis ;  it  is  slighter  during  lethargy  and  catalepsy,  and 
does  not  exist  at  all  in  the  case  of  some  subjects,  who 
are  in  these  states  unable  to  receive  any  suggestions 
whatever.  It  is  during  somnambulism  that  unconscious 
suggestion  is  most  frequently  present,  and  when  the 
experimenter  has  to  do  with  a  somnambulist,  he  should 
always  remember  this  source  of  error,  and  guard  against  it. 
The  moral  proof  derived  from  the  subject's  good  faith  is 
useless,  since  we  are  not  concerned  with  simulation.  It  is 
well  for  the  experimenter  to  work  in  silence,  not  to  pre- 
pare his  experiments  in  the  presence  of  his  subject,  and 
to  execute  them  before  a  limited  number  of  spectators. 
One  or  two  are  enough.  We  cannot  too  often  repeat 
that  only  the  first  experiments  are  convincing,  since, 
strictly  speaking,  these  alone  are  performed  on  a  virgin 
subject,  safe  from  unconscious  suggestion.  Every  time 
that  the  experiment  is  repeated,  there  are  probably  more 
spectators  who  comment  upon  it  aloud;  they  uncon- 
sciously make  suggestions  which  vitiate  the  purity  of  the 
phenomenon,  and  greatly  diminish  its  value.  In  addition 
to  this  there  is  another  source  of  error,  namely,  that 
when  the  second  experiment  takes  pl9.ce,  the  subject 
remembers  the  former  one.  For  instance,  if  a  given 
phenomenon  has  been  produced  once  by  the  employment 
of  a  given  agent,  on  the  second  occasion  the  presence  of 
this  agent,  or  even  its  image,  may  recall  its  sensation,  and 
so  disturb  the  experiment  in  hand. 

For  these  reasons,  among  others,  we  have  always  been 
careful  in  our  papers  on  hypnotism  to  give  the  results  of 
the  first  experiment,  although  these  results  were  often 
less  exact  and  complete  than  those  which  followed. 


194  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

We  believe  that  the  experimenter  who  follows  the 
rules  just  laid  down,  who  accurately  defines  the  physical 
and  mental  condition  of  his  subjects,  who  takes  measures 
completely  to  eliminate  simulation  and  unconscious 
suggestion,  will  obtain  verifiable  results. 

We  must  not  omit  a  final  precept,  equally  applicable 
to  the  research  into  facts  and  to  the  performance  of 
experiments,  and  that  is,  to  bring  together  the  phe- 
nomena of  suggestion  which  are  already  known,  and 
which  make  part  of  positive  science.  Many  experi- 
menters have  disregarded  this  important  precept,  and 
have  written  pages  on  suggestion  which  are  only  a 
collection  of  amusing  anecdotes,  adapted  rather  to  pique 
curiosity  than  to  afibrd  instruction.  Paul  Janet  has 
forcibly  remarked  on  the  serious  consequences  of  this 
omission  :  "  In  recent  works  on  the  subject  of  suggestion, 
all  more  or  less  intended  for  the  public,  since  they  were 
published  at  conferences,  lectures,  or  in  reviews,  we  have 
observed  that,  instead  of  first  relying  on  the  most  common 
and  elementary  facts,  assuming  that  these  were  already 
too  well  known,  which  is  by  no  means  the  case,  they 
have  been  chiefiy  anxious  to  dwell  on  extraordinary 
facts  which  strike  the  imagination.  This  is  intelligible 
enough,  since  in  addressing  the  public,  success  is  the 
first  object.  The  writer  doubtless  loves  truth  for  its  own 
sake,  but  he  is  not  unwilling  to  make  it  effective.  If 
the  audience  or  the  reader  is  prepared,  the  efl^ect  is 
weakened,  and  it  becomes  greater  in  proportion  to  its 
unexpectedness.  This  tendency  to  throw  into  relief 
the  extraordinary  and  the  unexpected  is  excellent  from 
the  literary  and  dramatic  point  of  view,  but  it  has  many 
inconveniences   when   we   are   concerned   with   science, 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  195 

for  when  the  amazement  is  too  great,  it  inclines  the 
mind  to  unbelief,  and  diverts  it  from  examination. 
Enlightened  minds  have  long  held  aloof  from  the 
study  of  magnetism,  precisely  because  of  its  marvellous 
and  mysterious  character.  And  now,  although  the 
new  facts  rest,  or  appear  to  rest,  on  a  really  scientific 
method,  yet  their  resemblance  to  those  of  magnetism 
tends  to  produce  an  analogous  disposition  to  hostility 
and  dislike.  At  the  same  time,  by  a  reciprocal  and 
contrary  effect  which  is  no  less  vexatious,  others  regard 
these  singular  phenomena,  of  which  they  cannot  divine 
the  cause,  as  if  they  were  invested  with  the  same 
prestige  of  the  unknown  and  the  mysterious  as  those 
of  magnetism.  The  one  leads  to  the  other,  and  since 
the  public  is  unacquainted  with  the  methods  of  science, 
they  confuse  the  subjects  together,  so  as  to  fall  back  into 
the  error  which  it  was  sought  to  avoid."  * 

The  method  to  be  pursued  consists,  as  we  have  said, 
in  at  once  showing  that  suggestion  is  not  a  distinct 
phenomenon  in  the  history  of  intelligence,  an  isolated, 
disconnected  fact,  explained  by  nothing,  and  as  it  were 
suspended  in  mid-air.  It  is  necessary  to  insist  on  the* 
close  relations  existing  between  the  phenomena  of  sug- 
gestion and  the  admitted  facts  which  form  part  of 
positive  science;  the  connection  between  them  must 
be  made  clear,  since  these  phenomena  are  only  an 
exaggeration  and  a  pathological  deviation. 

On  this  subject  we  shall  have  to  point  out  numerous 
parallels  between  the  facts  of  suggestion  and  those  of 
physiology,  of  psychology,  and  of  mental  disorder. 
The  comparative   study  of   suggestion  and   of  psycho- 

*  Rsvtie  politique  et  litt^raire,  August,  1884. 


196  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

logical  phenomena  will  show  us  that  the  hypnotic 
subject  is  not  governed  by  special  psychological  laws, 
and  that  the  germs  of  all  his  symptoms  may  be  traced 
in  the  normal  state.  The  comparative  study  of  the 
phenomena  of  suggestion  and  of  mental  disorder  will, 
moreover,  show  that  the  psychical  disturbance  caused 
in  the  subject  by  suggestion  has  many  characters 
in  common  with  the  spontaneous  disturbance  found  in 
an  insane  person ;  that,  for  instance,  the  hallucination  of 
hypnotism  does  not  essentially  differ  from  the  ordinary 
forms  of  hallucination. 

It  is  by  means  of  these  repeated  comparisons  that 
the  experimenter  finds  his  bearings  in  the  study  of 
hypnotism,  in  which  such  care  is  necessary.  Re- 
liance on  the  achieved  results  of  positive  science  acts 
as  a  check  and  guidance,  and  hypnotism,  instead  of 
being  merely  an  amusement  for  the  idle,  becomes  a 
useful  method  of  experiment  in  psychology  and  in 
mental  diseases. 

Ill 

Suggestion  acts  on  the  subject's  nervous  system, 
and  produces  modifications  analogous  to  those  which 
are  produced  by  peripheral  excitements.  But  we  are 
far  from  knowing  all  the  effects  produced  by  the  idea 
which  is  introduced  by  means  of  suggestion  into  the 
subject's  brain ;  it  is,  indeed,  probable  that  we  are  not 
acquainted  with  the  thousandth  part  of  them.  Far  from 
wishing  to  conceal  this  incompleteness  of  the  theory  of 
suggestion,  we  think  it  well  to  call  particular  attention 
to  it.  The  study  of  suggestion  has  only  just  begun, 
and  many  surprises  are  doubtless  in  store  for  us. 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  197 

We  think  it  probable  that  when  suggestion  is  em- 
ployed in  the  case  of  a  subject  adapted  for  it,  it  is 
capable  of  producing  all  the  actions  connected  with 
the  nervous  system.  This  is,  however,  only  a  proba 
bility,  since  direct  proofs  are  wanting,  and  if  it  were 
proved,  we  have  still  to  learn  the  extent  and  limits  of 
the  influence  of  the  nervous  system  on  the  rest  of  the 
organism.  The  question  of  suggestion  merges  in  this 
case  in  an  important  and  still  somewhat  obscure  question 
of  physiology. 

A  fresh  chapter  in  the  history  of  suggestion  has 
been  lately  opened.  Various  observers  have  been  study- 
ing suggestions  which  do  not  exert  any  action  on  the 
subject's  physical  life,  but  on  the  so-called  vegetative 
functions,  circulation,  calorification,  secretion,  digestion, 
etc. 

We  do  not  propose  to  dwell  on  well-known  facts, 
such  as  purging  by  means  of  suggestion,  since  such 
facts  present  no  special  feature,  and  we  know  that  in 
the  normal  state  these  effects  are  produced  by  certain 
forms  of  mental  emotion. 

The  most  important  of  the  organic  disturbances  pro- 
duced by  an  idea  is  an  experiment  on  vesication,  per- 
formed by  Focachon,  a  chemist  at  Charmes.  He  applied 
some  postage  stamps  to  the  left  shoulder  of  a  hypnotized 
subject,  keeping  them  in  their  place  with  some  strips 
of  diachylon  and  a  compress;  at  the  same  time  he 
suggested  to  the  subject  that  he  had  applied  a  blister. 
The  subject  was  watched,  and  when  twenty  hours  had 
elapsed  the  dressing,  which  had  remained  untouched,  was 
removed.  The  epidermis  to  which  it  had  been  applied 
was  thickened  and  dead  and  of  a  yellowish  white  colour. 


198  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

and  this  region  of  the  skin  was  puffy,  and  surrounded 
by  an  intensely  red  zone.  Several  physicians,  including 
Beaunis,  confirmed  this  observation,  and  the  latter  made 
photographs  of  the  blister,  which  he  presented  to  the 
Society  of  Physiological  Psychology  on  June  29,  1885.* 

Shortly  afterwards,  on  July  11,  1885,  Dumontpallier 
informed  the  Societe  de  Biologie  of  experiments  per- 
formed on  hypnotized  hysterical  subjects,  whose  tem- 
perature he  had  raised  locally  several  degrees ;  this  is 
a  curious  fact,  to  which  another  is  analogous,  namely, 
that  the  temperature  is  lowered  in  the  correlative 
region  of  the  body  during  the  suggestion  of  these 
physical  phenomena. 

During  the  same  seance,  Bourru  and  Burot,  professors 
of  the  Rochefort  school,  published  records  of  epistaxis,  and 
even  of  blood-sweat,  produced  by  suggestion  in  a  male 
hysterical  patient,  who  was  affected  by  hemiplegia  and 
hemi-ansesthesia.  On  one  occasion,  after  one  of  these 
experimenters  had  hypnotized  the  subject,  he  traced  his 
name  with  the  blunted  end  of  a  probe  on  both  his  fore- 
arms, and  then  issued  the  following  order : — "  This  after- 
noon, at  four  o'clock,  you  will  go  to  sleep,  and  blood 
will  then  issue  from  your  arms  on  the  lines  which  I  have 
now  traced."  The  subject  fell  asleep  at  the  hour  named; 
the  letters  then  appeared  on  his  left  arm,  marked  in 
relief,  and  of  a  bright  red  colour  which  contrasted  with 
the  general  paleness  of  the  skin,  and  there  were  even 
minute  drops  of  blood   in  several  places.     There    was 

*  It  seems  that  as  long  ago  as  November,  1840,  Prejalmini,  an  Italian 
physician,  raised  a  blister  by  applying  to  the  healthy  skin  of  a  somnam- 
bulist a  piece  of  paper  on  which  he  had  written  a  prescription  for  a  blister. 
We  owe  this  fact  to  Ferrari,  who  found  it  in  Eicard's  Journal  de  Mag- 
n^tisme  Animal,  2nd  year,  1840,  pp.  18,  151. 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  199 

absolutely  nothing  to  be  seen  on  the  right  and  paralysed 
side.  Mabille  subsequently  heard  the  same  patient,  in 
a  spontaneous  attack  of  hysteria,  command  his  arm  to 
bleed,  and  soon  afterwards  the  cutaneous  hasmorrhaofe 
just  described  was  displayed.  These  strange  phenomena 
recall,  and  also  explain,  the  bleeding  stigmata  which  have 
been  repeatedly  observed  in  the  subjects  of  religious 
ecstasy  who  have  pictured  to  themselves  the  passion  of 
Christ. 

Charcot  and  his  pupils  at  the  Salpetriere  have 
often  produced  the  effects  of  burns  upon  the  skin  of 
hypnotized  subjects  by  means  of  suggestion.  The  idea 
of  the  burn  does  not  take  effect  immediately,  but  after 
the  lapse  of  some  hours.  It  is  still  very  doubtful  whether 
all  organic  functions  may  be  thus  modified  by  means  of 
suggestion. 

Quite  recently  one  of  the  present  writers  *  succeeded 
in  showing,  by  means  of  processes  analogous  to  those  of 
Mosso,  that  any  part  of  the  body  of  an  hysterical  patient 
may  change  in  volume,  simply  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  patient's  attention  is  fixed  on  that  part.  This  im- 
portant observation  is  not  only  an  addition  to  the 
foregoing,  but  explains  them  by  showing  what  influence 
may  be  exerted  in  hyperexcitable  subjects  by  a  simple 
phenomenon  of  ideation  on  the  vaso-motor  centres,  which 
are  concerned  in  all  experiments  of  this  kind. 

Among  the  effects  of  suggestion  only  one  class  has 
been  the  object  of  regular  research:  that  of  psychical  phe- 
nomena. These  have  been  studied  by  preference  because 
they  were  the  first  which  charlatans  sought  to  turn 
to  their  advantage.  To  these  we  now  propose  to  turn 
•  Ch.  FeX  Bull.  SocietS  de  Biologic,  1886,  p.  309. 


200  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

our  attention,  endeavouring  to  define  and  classify  them 
with  the  utmost  care. 

If,  before  going  into  details,  we  consider  the  subject 
as  a  whole,  it  will  be  seen  that  we  have  to  study  the 
part  played  by  ideas  in  the  modification  of  the  in- 
telligence; that  we  must  observe  what  this  factor 
produces  when  it  acts  alone.  It  is  generally  admitted 
by  psychologists  that  the  idea  is  only  a  secondary  factor, 
that  it  is  for  the  most  part  a  resultant,  a  point  of 
arrival ;  that  psychical  phenomena  are  in  some  sort 
developed  from  below  in  an  upward  direction.  They  do 
not  begin  in  the  upper  centres  of  ideation,  but  are  com- 
pleted there.*  So  also  the  phenomena  of  suggestion 
which,  by  an  inverse  mechanism,  are  developed  from 
the  higher  to  the  lower  plane,  are  more  superficial  and 
ephemeral  than  spontaneous  phenomena.  It  is  possible 
to  suggest  to  a  subject  that  he  is  very  hungry,  but  this 
feeling,  which  is  dictated  by  an  idea,  will  not  be  so  deep 
as  that  which  is  due  to  an  organic  necessity.  So,  again, 
the  personality  of  the  subject  may  be  transformed,  and 
he  may  be  changed  into  a  dog  or  a  wolf;  but  when  this 
borrowed  personality  is  engrafted  on  the  true  one, 
the  character  is  not  fundamentally  changed.  If  the 
suggestion  is  to  produce  any  permanent  modifications 
it  must  be  often  repeated,  and  it  will  then,  at  least  in 
some  cases,  end  by  producing  habits.  A  subject  to  whom 
suggestions  of  motor  paralysis  had  been  repeatedly  made, 
said  that  in  dreams  she  often  saw  half  of  her  body 
paralysed.  Experimental  suggestions  of  crime  ought 
not  to  be  lightly  made,  since  we  cannot  alwa3^s  tell 
what  traces  they  leave  behind  them. 

♦  Bibot,  Maladies  de  la  Personnalit^,  p.  131.    Paris :  F.  Alcan, 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  201 

A  careful  study  of  suggestion  shows  thai  this  word 
does  not  imply  a  single  fact,  but  two  principal  facts 
which  may  be  said  to  form  the  cardinal  points  of  the 
whole  theory.  There  are  two  fundamental  kinds  of 
suggestion ;  the  one  produces  an  active  or  impulsive 
phenomenon,  such  as  a  sensation  of  pain,  an  hallucination, 
an  act;  the  effect  of  the  other  is  to  produce  a  phenomenon 
of  paralysis,  such  as  the  flaccidity  of  a  limb,  the  loss  of 
memory,  anaesthesia  of  the  senses.  These  are  two  quite 
different  processes,  and  may  even  be  said  to  be  opposed 
to  each  other,  since  the  one  undoes  what  is  done  by  the 
other.  It  is  impossible  to  refer  them  to  the  same  psychical 
law,  and  to  apply  to  them  the  same  explanation. 

Let  us  first  consider  the  positive  suggestions,  of  which 
the  hallucination  and  the  act  are  the  most  important.  It 
has  already  been  observed  that  all  suggestions  are  ad- 
dressed to  the  subject's  sensorial  organs,  and  that  the 
co-operation  of  his  intelligence  is  necessary  in  order  to 
attain  the  end  in  view.  We  must  go  further,  and  establish 
the  fact  that  each  suggestion  includes  two  things  :  first, 
an  impression  is  made  upon  the  subject,  which  is,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  a  sensation  of  sight,  of  hearing 
(verbal  suggestion),  of  touch,  or  of  the  other  senses. 
This  initial  impression,  which  may  be  termed  the  sugges- 
tive impression,  has  the  effect  of  arousing  in  the  subject's 
brain  a  second  impression,  which  may  be  termed  the 
suggested  state,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  hallucinatory 
image.  The  first  impression  is  the  means,  the  second  its 
object.  In  reply  to  the  question  how  the  first  impression, 
which  is  directly  produced  by  the  experimenter,  can 
arouse  the  second,  which  is  wholly  from  within,  and 
without  any  direct  influence  from  the  experimenter,  we 


202  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

should  reply  that  this  is  owing  to  the  association  of  ideas. 
Suggestion  in  its  positive  form  is  only  the  setting  in 
action  of  a  mental  association  previously  existing  in  the 
subject's  mind. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  subject  is  told  to  look 
at  the  bird  on  her  apron.  As  soon  as  the  words  are 
uttered  she  sees  the  bird,  she  feels  it  in  her  hand,  and 
can  sometimes  even  hear  it  sing.  Inexperienced  persons 
may  think  it  extraordinary  and  even  inexplicable  that 
an  imaginary  image  can  be  created  in  the  subject's  brain 
by  mere  words;  but  it  is  nevertheless  a  fact  that  the 
association  of  ideas  is  the  cause  of  the  suggestion  of 
hallucinations.  The  words  uttered  by  the  experimenter 
are  associated  with  the  mental  image  of  a  bird  by 
education,  by  repetition,  in  a  word,  by  habit ;  therefore 
it  produces  this  image,  and  the  hallucination  is  effected. 
It  is  a  law  that  when  two  images  have  frequently  been 
received  together,  simultaneously  or  in  quick  succession, 
the  presence  of  the  one  tends  to  revive  the  other.  The 
production  of  the  hallucinatory  image  by  means  of  verbal 
affirmation  is  only  a  fulfilment  of  this  well-known  law. 
We  should  be  able  to  show,  by  considering  it  more  closely, 
that  this  mode  of  suggestion  belongs  to  the  group  of 
associations  by  proximity. 

Instead  of  making  use  of  speech,  the  subject's  sense 
of  sight  may  be  employed.  When  his  eyes  are  mobile 
and  follow  all  our  actions  with  docility,  we  make  with 
the  hand  the  appearance  of  some  flying  object,  and  the 
subject  soon  exclaims,  "What  a  beautiful  bird!"  This 
singular  effect  of  a  simple  gesture  is  also  due  to  the 
association  of  ideas.  The  rude  imitation  by  which  the 
hand  represents  the  movement  of  some  flying  object  has 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  203 

raised  up  the  image  of  a  bird.  In  this  case  the  associa- 
tion which  comes  into  play  differs  from  the  former  one ; 
it  is  an  association  due  to  resemblance. 

It  is  in  this  way  that  psychology  explains  the 
mechanism  of  hallucinatory  suggestion,  which  essenti- 
ally consists  in  acting  on  an  association.  It  is  only  a 
special  case  of  the  great  law  of  which  this  is  the  for- 
mula : — When  an  image  is  aroused  in  the  mind,  it  tends 
to  reproduce  all  the  images  which  resemble  it,  or  which 
were  found  with  it  in  an  anterior  act  of  consciousness. 
In  a  word,  one  image  suggests  another.  Paul  Janet 
observes  on  this  subject :  "  Some  Scotch  psychologists, 
Brown  for  example,  have  even  proposed  to  call  this  law 
the  law  of  suggestion,  a  term  which  would  be  much 
more  appropriate  than  the  other.  I  have  no  doubt  that 
the  expression  of  suggestion,  introduced  by  Braid  into 
his  theory  of  hypnotism,  is  derived  from  this  source."  * 

Just  as  the  association  of  the  word  with  the  imaofe 
explains  the  suggestion  of  hallucinations,  so  the  association 
of  the  image  with  the  movement  explains  the  suggestion 
of  acts. 

When  a  given  movement  is  executed  before  the  eyes 
of  a  subject,  such  as  clapping  the  hands,  the  representation 
of  this  movement  is  produced  in  his  mind.  When,  with- 
out moving  himself,  the  experimenter  bids  his  subject 
clap  his  hands,  the  representation  of  the  same  action  is 
aroused  in  his  mind  by  the  association  of  words  with 
ideas  ;  if  in  both  cases  alike  the  subject  performs 
the  act  in  question — in  other  words,  if  the  image  is 
translated  into  movement — this  is  because  custom  has 
associated  the  image  with  the  movement.     It  is,  as  it 

♦  Revue  politique  et  litt€raire,  August,  1884. 


204  ANIMAL    MAGNETIS^L 

were,  the  beginning  or  first  stage  of  the  movement  which 
it  represents,  and  owing  to  this  fact  the  subject  auto- 
matically executes  whatever  he  is  ordered  to  do,  even  if 
the  act  should  be  dangerous,  immoral,  or  merely  ridiculous. 
Richet  tells  us  that  on  one  occasion,  when  performing 
experiments  on  the  friend  he  had  hypnotized,  he  com- 
pelled him  to  pick  up  the  piece  of  chalk  he  had  thrown 
under  the  table  twenty  times.  In  fact,  the  suggestion  of 
acts  is  perhaps,  of  all  the  phenomena  of  suggestion,  the 
one  which  approximates  most  closely  to  the  normal  state; 
it  simply  consists  in  the  servile  execution  of  an  order. 

We  have,  however,  an  observation  to  make  on  this 
subject.  We  are  compelled  to  connect  these  facts  of 
suggestion,  impulses,  and  hallucinations,  with  the  facts  of 
positive  science  which  may  serve  to  prove  and  control 
them.  Yet  we  are  far  from  believing  that  this  method 
;vill  give  a  complete  explanation  of  the  phenomena  in 
question.  It  is  a  proof  of  excessive  confidence  to  assume 
that  everything  is  explained,  and  a  word  is  enough  to 
show  that  the  matter  is  still  full  of  obscurity.  Admitting 
that  the  suggestion  of  a  movement  is  explained  by  the 
association  of  the  movement  with  its  image  or  representa- 
tion, it  is  a  qaestxon  whether  as  much  can  be  said  of  the 
suggestion  of  an  act.  When  the  subject's  brain  is  charged 
with  this  idea,  "On  awaking  you  will  steal  the  hand- 
kerchief of  some  given  person,"  and  the  subject  when  he 
awakes  does  actually  commit  the  theft,  we  cannot  suppose 
that  there  is  nothing  in  this  except  an  image  associated 
with  an  act.  The  subject  has,  in  fact,  appropriated  and 
assimilated  the  experimenter's  idea.  Instead  of  passively 
executing  the  order  given  by  another,  the  order  has 
passed  into  the  active  state,  that  is,  the  subject  feels  a 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  205 

desire  to  steal — a  complex  and  obscure  state  which  no 
one  has  hitherto  been  able  to  explain.  We  shall  return 
to  this  subject  presently,  in  order  to  examine  it  more 
closely. 

Since  we  find  so  much  that  is  enigmatical  in  the 
region  of  impulsive  suggestions,  which  are  the  clearest 
and  most  intelligible,  this  is  still  more  the  case  when  we 
approach  the  subject  of  inhibitory  suggestions.  Here 
the  most  superficial  psychologist  will  find  himself  on 
new  ground.  The  facts  of  paralysis  by  means  of  sug- 
gestion completely  overthrow  classic  psychology.  The 
experimenter  who  produces  them  with  perfect  ease  does 
not  really  know  what  he  is  doing. 

Take  an  instance  of  systematic  ansesthesia.  The 
subject  was  told,  "  On  awaking  you  will  be  unable  to  see 

or  hear,  or  in  any  way  perceive  M.  X ,  who  is  now 

present;  he  will  have  completely  disappeared."  Accord- 
ingly, when  the  subject  awoke  she  saw  all  the  persons 

who  surrounded  her  with  the  exception  of  M.  X . 

When  he  spoke,  she  did  not  answer  his  questions,  and 
when  he  laid  his  hand  on  her  shoulder,  she  was  uncon- 
scious of  the  contact.  He  put  himself  in  her  way,  and 
she  walked  on  and  was  alarmed  to  encounter  an  invisible 
object.  We  are  ignorant  how  this  phenomenon  is  pro- 
duced and  can  only  accept  the  external  fact;  namely, 
that  when  a  subject  is  assured  that  an  object  present 
has  no  existence,  the  suggestion  has  the  direct  or  indirect 
efiect  of  establishing  in  his  brain  an  ansesthesia  coi- 
responding  to  the  object  selected.  But  it  is  still  a 
question  what  occurs  between  the  spoken  affirmation, 
which  is  the  means,  and  the  systematic  ansesthesia, 
which  is  the  end.  We  cannot,  as  in  the  case  of  halluci- 
10 


206  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

nation,  assume  that  the  word  spoken  to  the  subject,  and 
the  phenomenon  produced,  are  connected  by  association. 
If  it  is  true  that  the  image  of  a  serpent  is  associated 
with  the  words,  "Here  is  a  serpent,"  it  cannot  be  said 

that  the  incapacity  for  seeing  M.  X ,  who  is  present 

at  the  time,  is  also  associated  with  the  words,  "  M.  X 

is  non-existent."  In  this  case  the  law  of  association, 
which  is  so  useful  in  resolving  psychological  problems, 
is  altogether  unavailing.  This  is  probably  because  this 
law  will  not  explain  all  the  facts  of  consciousness,  and 
is  less  general  than  it  is  supposed  to  be  by  English 
psychologists. 

Similar  reflections  apply  to  another  instance  of 
paralysis  by  suggestion,  or  motor  paralysis.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  suggest  to  a  hypnotized  subject  that  her  arm  is 
paralysed.  It  is  only  necessary  to  say  repeatedly  with 
the  requisite  authority,  "  Your  arm  is  paralysed,"  and 
functional  impotence  is  soon  displayed.  The  subject 
begins  by  signifying  a  denial  of  the  fact,  she  tries  to  raise 
her  arm,  and  succeeds  in  doing  so.  She  is  repeatedly 
told,  "You  cannot  raise  your  arm;  it  will  faU  again," 
and  paralysis  gradually  comes  on,  and  presently  extends 
to  the  whole  arm.  The  subject  can  no  longer  move  it, 
and  its  flaccidity  is  absolute.  Such  is  the  singular 
phenomenon  of  motor  paralysis  by  means  of  suggestion. 
It  is  as  difficult  to  understand  as  the  anaesthesia  to 
which  it  corresponds.  We  do  not  think  that  it  can  be 
explained  b}^  any  psychical  facts  now  known  to  us. 

Perhaps  this  whole  class  of  facts  is  subject  to  a 
general  psychical  law  of  which  the  most  advanced 
psychologists  have  not  yet  discovered  the  formula  and 
which  may  have  some  analogy  with  an  inhibitory  actioa 


GENERAL   STUDY  OF    SUGGESTION.  207 

According  to  this  hypothesis  it  may  be  provisionally 
admitted  that  in  order  to  paralyse  the  subject  the 
experimenter  produces  in  him  a  mental  impression  which 
has  an  inhibitory  effect  on  one  of  his  sensorial  or  motor 
functions :  it  should  also  be  clearly  understood  that, 
strictly  speaking,  it  is  not  the  mental  impression  which 
produces  the  inhibition,  but  the  concomitant  physio- 
logical process.  Moreover,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  word  inhibition  explains  nothing,  and  does  not  dis- 
pense with  the  necessity  of  seeking  the  true  explanation. 

Hypnotic  suggestions  may  be  classified  as  follows : — 
Some  are  only  effected  during  sleep,  and  disappear  with 
a  return  to  the  normal  state  ;  others  continue  during  the 
waking  state ;  others,  again,  are  produced  in  the  waking 
state. 

Thus,  the  hallucination  of  a  bird  may  be  given  to  a 
somnambulist,  and  this  hallucination  will  disappear  when 
the  subject  is  awakened  by  breathing  on  his  eyes.  As 
soon  as  he  returns  to  the  normal  state,  he  is  completely 
free  from  any  imaginary  vision.  This  is  the  case 
with  fresh  subjects  and  with  those  who  are  only  mode- 
rately receptive,  in  whom  suggestion  does  not  outlast 
the  hypnotic  sleep.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  protract 
the  suggestion  after  the  awakening  by  strengthening  it 
with  a  different  suggestion.  If  the  precaution  is  taken 
of  telling  the  subject  to  whom  the  hallucination  is  given 
that  he  will  still  see  the  object  in  question  when  he 
awakes,  the  assertion  is  often  enough  to  ensure  the 
existence  of  the  suggestion  in  the  post-hypnotic  state. 

It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  make  a  special  sugges- 
tion in  order  to  produce  this  effect  in  subjects  thoroughly 
under  the  influence  of  profound  hypnotism.    Every  effect 


208  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

which  has  been  suggested  without  fixing  any  term  to  it, 
and  which  has  a  continuous  form,  may  persist  for  a  shorter 
or  longer  period  during  the  waking  state.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  hallucinations,  paralysis,  etc. 
We  are  thus  presented  with  a  curious  experience,  calcu- 
lated to  interest  the  psychologist.  The  subject  is  awake, 
has  returned  to  what  may  be  called  his  normal  state, 
is  able. to  reflect,  reason,  and  direct  his  conduct ;  and  yet, 
under  these  conditions,  he  is  influenced  by  the  hypnotic 
suggestion. 

The  suggestion  which  persists  during  the  waking 
state  presents  one  interesting  characteristic;  it  appears 
to  the  subject  to  be  spontaneous.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  process  which  produced  the  suggestion  seems  to 
leave  no  trace  of  its  symptoms,  and  the  subject  who  after 
awaking  is  still  a  prey  to  the  hallucination  which  was 
suggested,  does  not  remember  the  way  in  which  it  was 
produced.  We  have  not  in  a  single  case  met  with 
a  subject  who  said  spontaneously,  "If  I  see  a  bird  at 
this  moment,  it  is  because  you  assured  me  that  I  saw 
one  when  I  was  asleep."  The  memory  of  the  uttered 
word  has  completely  disappeared,  while  its  effect  remains 
in  the  hallucinatory  image.  Hence  it  follows  that 
hypnotic  hallucination  has  always  the  appearance  of 
a  spontaneous  symptom.  Some  curious  consequences 
ensue.  A  subject  is  told  that  one  of  the  persons  present 
wears  a  coat  with  gold  buttons,  and  the  word  arouses 
the  sensible  image  of  buttons  of  a  yellow  colour.  If  the 
subject  is  afterwards  asked  of  what  the  buttons  are 
made,  he  may  reply,  "  They  are  made  of  copper."  The 
buttons  which  he  has  before  his  eyes  are  yellow,  and  he 
supposes  that  they  are  copper;  he  has  completely  for- 


GENERAL  STUDY  OF  SUGGESTION.  209 

gotten  the   word    gold    which    figured    in    the    verbal 
suggestion. 

The  same  may  be  said  with  respect  to  suggestion  of 
acts.     On  awaking,  the  subject'  obediently  performs  the 
act  which  he  was  ordered  to  do  during  the  hypnotic 
sleep,  but  he  does  not  remember  who  gave  him  the  order, 
nor  even  that  it  was  given  at  all.     If  asked  why  he  is  i 
performing  this  act,  he  usually  replies  that  he  does  not  | 
know,  or  that  the  idea  has  come  into  his  head.     He  ' 
generally  supposes  it  to  be  a  spontaneous  act,  and  some-  1 
times  he  even  invents  reasons  fco  explain   his  conduct.  \ 
All  this  shows  that  the  memory  of  the  suggestion,  so  far 
as  respects  its  utterance,  is  completely  effaced. 

The  same  rule  applies  to  paralysis  by  suggestion. 
The  subject  who  is  affected  by  a  monoplegia,  when  he 
awakes  does  not  understand  how  the  accident  occurred ; 
he  remembers  nothing  of.  the  verbal  suggestion,  nor  does 
he  suspect  that  the  incapacity  to  move  his  arm  is  due  to 
a  conviction  of  the  want  of  motor  power.  In  short,  the 
suggestion  is  effaced  from  the  subject's  mind  as  soon  as 
it  has  produced  its  effect,  and  the  symptoms  appear  to 
be  evolved  independently  of  their  cause.  The  existence 
of  this  partial  failure  of  memory  may  perhaps  allow  us 
to  compare  the  artificial  results  of  suggestion  with  the 
phenomena  which  are  spontaneously  displayed  in  normal 
individuals  and  also  in  the  insane,  in  their  acts,  pheno- 
menal impulses,  hallucinations,  etc. 

We  now  come  to  the  detailed  study  of  the  facts  of 
suggestion.  It  is  impossible  to  examine  all  of  them, 
and  we  must  be  content  with  selecting  a  certain  number 
of  typical  cases  for  careful  study.  We  shall  successively 
consider  hallucinations,  impulsive  acts,  motor  paralysis, 


210  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

and  paralysis  of  the  senses.  The  phenomena  just  indicated 
are  the  simplest  which  can  be  obtained  by  means  of 
hypnotic  experimentation,  and  in  studying  them  we  may 
be  said  to  study  the  most  elementary  properties  of  the 
phenomena  of  suggestion.  If  space  permitted,  we  should 
follow  up  the  study  of  these  elementary  facts  of  sugges- 
tion by  enumerating  the  complex  facts  derived  from 
them.  Thus,  we  might  connect  with  the  hallucinatory 
ima^je  all  the  facts  included  under  the  name  of  intelli- 
gence — sensation,  the  association  of  images,  memory, 
reason,  and  imagination.  With  a  suggested  act  are  con- 
nected sentiments,  emotions,  passions,  voluntary  action, 
and  all  the  phenomena  constituting  the  psychology  of 
movement,  with  which  we  are  as  yet  imperfectly  ac- 
quainted. Finally,  paralysis  by  suggestion  is  connected 
with  the  phenomena  of  psychical  inhibition  of  which  the 
study  has  not  as  yet  even  begun. 


(  211  ) 


CHAPTER    IX. 

HALLUCINATIONS. 


Hypnotic  hallucination,  of  whicli  we  propose  to  give 
a  short  sketch,  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  important 
phenomena  of  hypnosis ;  the  attention  of  observers  has 
long  been  directed  to  it,  and  it  has  been  the  subject  of 
numerous  experiments. 

In  the  case  of  a  subject  sensitive  to  suggestion,  the 
experimenter  can  produce  the  most  varied  hallucinations, 
and  it  may  almost  be  said  that  there  is  nothing  which 
suggestion  cannot  create.  This  observation  will  suffice, 
and  we  need  not  cite  the  innumerable  instances  of  hal- 
lucinations given  by  some  authors,  who  are  more  inte- 
rested in  experiments  which  amuse  than  in  those  which 
instruct.  It  is  as  unprofitable  to  enumerate  all  the 
species  of  hallucination  which  it  pleases  the  observer  to 
impose  upon  his  subject,  as  to  describe  all  the  forms 
which  a  piece  of  clay  may  assume  in  the  hands  of  its 
moulder.  We  shall,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with 
giving  a  few  instances  of  the  way  in  which  hypnotic 
hallucination  may  affect  all  the  senses. 

Sight. — A  false  appreciation  of  the  form  of  an  object 
may  be  suggested,  so  that  it  appears  to  the  subject  to  be 


212  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

larger,  smaller,  or  misshapen.  If,  for  example,  the  idea 
of  some  deformity  of  face  in  a  given  person  is  suggested, 
the  subject,  even  when  some  hours  have  elapsed  since  his 
awakening,  will  regard  that  person  with  an  expression 
of  disgust  or  horror  whenever  he  looks  that  way,  and, 
indeed,  the  person  in  question  may  sometimes  become  an 
object  of  permanent  dislike.  We  have  employed  this 
method  with  success  in  order  to  break  off  the  relations 
between  certain  hysterical  patients.  The  illusion  may  be 
carried  so  far  as  to  produce  a  mistake  with  respect  to 
the  identity  of  a  person  ;  an  hypnotic  subject  will  in  the 
waking  state  lavish  caresses  on  a  person  whom  she  id 
known  to  detest,  if  during  the  hypnotic  sleep  it  has  been 
suggested  to  her  that  she  has  to  do  with  some  other 
person  to  whom  she  is  attached,  and  the  error  will  some- 
times persist  for  a  whole  day,  until  the  illusion  is 
destroyed  by  natural  sleep  or  by  an  hysterical  attack.  If 
the  presence  of  a  person  who  is  really  absent  has  been 
evoked  during  the  hypnotic  sleep,  the  illusion  is  equally 
persistent,  and  the  subject  may  perceive  an  imaginary 
object  throughout  the  day.  At  the  word  of  the  experi- 
menter the  laboratory  becomes  a  street,  a  garden,  a 
cemetery,  a  lake,  etc ;  a  portrait  appears  on  a  blank 
sheet  of  paper.  It  may  even  be  suggested  that  there  is  a 
column  of  figures  on  the  paper,  which  the  subject  will 
add  up  correctly.     (Babinski.) 

Hearing. — Influenced  by  suggestion,  the  subject  con- 
founds the  voice  of  an  unknown  person  with  that  of  an 
absent  acquaintance;  he  can  hear,  in  the  midst  of  pro- 
found silence,  voices  which  issue  orders,  which  repeat 
insults  or  obscene  words,  etc. 

Taste.— li  the   subject  is  presented  with  a  piece  of 


HALLUCINATIONS.  213 

paper,  and  told  that  it  is  a  cake,  he  will  begin  to  eat  it 
with  relish.  In  other  cases,  he  may  be  convinced  that 
his  food  is  poisoned.  If  the  idea  of  a  nauseous  substance 
is  suggested  to  him,  the  sensation  may  be  so  intense  as 
to  produce  vomiting. 

Smell. — This  sense  may  also  become  the  seat  of 
erroneous  impressions.  The  subject  may,  for  example, 
believe  that  a  bad  smell  is  coming  to  him  through  the 
keyhole,  etc. 

Touch. — The  illusions  and  hallucinations  of  touch 
assume  still  more  varied  forms,  and  all  forms  of  cuta- 
neous sensibility  may  occur  together  or  separately.  The 
suggestion  of  a  wound  is  one  of  the  most  curious  of 
these  hallucinations ;  the  subject's  description  of  his 
suffering  varies  with  the  suggestion  that  the  wound 
was  given  by  a  sharp  or  blunt  instrument,  but  his 
description  is  only  correct  if  he  has  previously  experienced 
one  of  these  accidents.  It  is  still  more  remarkable  that 
the  hallucination  of  sight  is  simultaneously  developed  : 
the  subject  sees  the  blood  flow,  etc.,  and  a  systematic 
delirium  ensues  which  is  more  or  less  persistent,  and 
during  which  he  complains  of  imaginary  suffering,  applies 
appropriate  dressings,  and  carries  his  arm  in  a  sling,  just 
as  if  the  wound  really  existed. 

Muscular  Sense. — If  an  hallucinatory  object,  such  as  a 
lamp-shade,  is  put  in  the  subject's  hands,  and  he  is  told 
to  press  it,  he  experiences  a  sensation  of  resistance,  and 
is  unable  to  bring  his  hands  together. 

Internal  Sense. — Suggestion  cannot  only  be  applied 
to  the  senses ;  it  is  possible  to  produce  visceral  hallucina- 
tions and  illusions,  the  sensation  of  a  foreign  substance 
in  the  interior  of  the  body,  etc    But  the  most  remarkable 


214  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

of  this  group  of  suggestions,  and  the  one  which  it  is  the 
most  easy  to  produce,  are  those  which  refer  to  the  calls 
of  nature.  When  hunf]jer  or  thirst  has  been  suo^ffested, 
the  subject  eagerly  calls  for  food  or  drink  as  soon  as  he 
awakes,  and  if  they  are  presented  to  him,  he  swallows 
them  with  avidity.  If  it  is  suggested  that  he  wishes  to 
make  water,  the  subject  is  scarcely  awake  before  he 
assumes  an  embarrassing  attitude  and  hastens  to  satisfy 
the  imaginary  necessity.  Sensual  suggestions  provoke 
equally  imperious  desires,  of  which  the  consequences  may 
be  imagined. 

Nor  is  this  all.  Not  only  do  the  suggestions  of 
imaginary  sensations  aflfect  the  senses  and  the  viscera, 
but  it  is  possible  to  suggest  the  idea  that  there  is  a 
change  of  structure  in  the  whole  substance.  The  subject 
may,  for  instance,  awake  in  amazement,  saying,  "I  am 
made  of  glass,  do  not  touch  me,"  and  systematic  delirium 
may  ensue  from  this  mistaken  idea.  Other  forms  of 
delirium  may  be  created  at  pleasure,  by  the  suggestion  of 
a  sensation  affecting  one  of  the  special  senses.  Richet's 
observations  on  this  subject,  in  the  Bevue  Philosophique 
of  March,  1884,  are  worthy  of  notice,  and  we  subjoin  a 
few  of  them. 

Mme.  A ,  a  respectable  matron,  underwent   the 

following  metamorphoses: — As  a  peasant.  She  rubbed 
her  eyes  and  stretched  herself:  "  What  o'clock  is  it  ?  Four 
in  the  morning ! "  She  drags  her  feet  as  if  wearing 
sabots.  "  I  must  get  up  and  go  to  the  stable.  Now,  La 
Rousse,  turn  round  ! "  She  assumes  to  be  milking  a 
cow.  "  Leave  me  alone,  Gros- Jean  ;  leave  me  alone,  I  say, 
and  let  me  get  on  with  my  work."  As  an  actress.  Her 
face,  so  harsh  and  dissatisfied  a  moment  before,  assumes 


HALLUCINATIONS.  215 

a  smiling  expression.  "  You  see  my  skirt  ?  My  director 
insisted  that  it  should  be  longer.  In  my  opinion,  the 
shorter  the  better;  but  these  directors  are  always  annoy- 
ing. Do  come  and  see  me  sometimes ;  I  am  always  at 
home  at  three.  You  might  pay  me  a  visit,  and  bring  a 
present  with  you."  As  Archbishop  of  Paris.  Her  face 
assumes  a  very  serious  expression,  and  she  speaks  slowly, 
in  a  voice  sweet  as  honey :  "  I  must  finish  writing  my 
charge.  Oh,  it  is  you,  M.  le  grand  vicaire.  What  do  you 
want  ?  I  did  not  wish  to  be  disturbed.  .  .  .  Yes,  this  is 
New  Year's  Day,  and  I  must  go  to  the  cathedral.  .  .  .  This 
is  a  very  reverent  crowd,  is  it  not,  M.  le  grand  vicaire  ? 
There  is  still  a  sense  of  religion  in  the  people,  whatever 
happens.  Let  that  child  come  near,  that  I  may  bless 
him."  She  presents  an  imaginary  ring  for  the  child  to 
kiss,  and  throughout  this  scene  she  makes  gestures  of 
benediction  to  the  right  and  left.  "  I  have  now  another 
task  in  hand.  I  must  go  and  pay  my  respects  to  the 
President  of  the  Republic.  M.  le  President,  I  give  you 
my  good  wishes.  The  Church  wishes  you  a  long  life : 
in  spite  of  the  cruel  attacks  made  upon  her,  she  knows 
that  she  has  nothing  to  fear  as  long  as  a  perfectly  honest 
man  is  at  the  head  of  the  Republic."  She  pauses,  appears 
to  listen,  and  says  aside,  "  Yes,  yes,  only  false  promises  ! " 
Then  aloud,  "  Now  let  us  pray ; "  and  she  kneels  down. 

We  have  observed  some  phenomena  of  the  same  kind, 
but  in  a  less  developed  form.  On  one  occasion  we  told 
X that  she  had  become  M.  F ,  and  after  some  resist- 
ance she  accepted  the  suggestion.     On  awaking  she  was 

unable  to  see  M.  F ,  who  was  present;  she  imitated  his 

manner,  and  made  the  gesture  of  putting  both  her  hands 
in  the  pockets  of  an  imaginary  hospital  apron.     From 


216  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

time  to  time  she  put  her  hand  to  her  lips,  as  if  to  smooth 
her  moustache,  and  looked  about  her  with  assurance. 
But  she  said  nothing.     We  asked  her  whether  she  was 

acquainted  with  X .   She  hesitated  for  a  moment,  and 

then  replied,  with  a  contemptuous  shrug  of  the  shoulders, 
'•  Oh  yes,  an  hysterical  patient.  What  do  you  think  of 
her  ?     She  is  not  too  wise." 

It  is  difficult  to  define  the  psychical  nature  of  these 
transformations  of  personality.  In  our  opinion  the 
phenomenon  is  more  complex  than  that  of  hallucination, 
and  constitutes  true  delirium.  Moreover,  many  hypnotic 
hallucinations— that  of  hearing,  for  instance — have  a 
secondary  tendency  to  produce  a  delirium  corresponding 
with  their  character. 

The  form  of  hallucinatory  suggestion  may  be  varied. 
We  have  begun  by  considering  the  hallucinations  which 
relate  to  the  present  time,  those  which  are  realized  as 
soon  as  the  suggestion  is  given.  It  is  possible,  in  the  case 
of  some  subjects,  to  create  an  hallucination  which  is  to 
be  realized  in  a  given  number  of  days,  weeks,  or  even 
months.  A  simple  affirmation  is  enough  to  effect  this 
experiment.  The  patient  is  told  that  when  he  enters 
the  room  on  the  following  day  he  will  see  a  crow  perched 
on  the  table ;  or  that  two  months  hence,  on  the  1st  of 
January,  he  will  see  the  speaker  come  in  to  wish  him  a 
happy  new  year.  The  subject  remembers  nothing  of 
this  when  he  awakes,  and  the  suggestion  remains 
dormant  in  his  mind  until  the  date  fixed  for  its  revival. 
We  shall  have  more  to  say  on  the  subject  of  these 
experiments. 

On  the  other  hand,  retrospective  hallucinations, 
which  are  really  hallucinations  of  the  memory,  can  also 


HALLUCINATIONS.  217 

be  given.  It  is,  for  instance,  impressed  upon  the  sub- 
ject that  at  a  given  moment  of  his  past  life  he  witnessed 
the  commission  of  a  crime  by  an  old  man  living  in  the 
same  house  with  him  (Bernheim),  and  if  the  suggestion 
is  clearly  defined,  the  subject's  memory  will  be  as  intense 
and  as  full  of  details  as  if  the  fact  had  actually  occurred. 
We  can  see  what  grave  consequences  might  ensue  from 
these  experiments  from  a  medico-legal  point  of  view. 

Unilateral  Hallucinations.  —  The  hallucinations 
hitherto  in  question  are  bi-lateral;  the  senses  aU  agree 
to  deceive  the  subject :  what  the  eye  sees,  that  the  hand 
touches,  and  the  ear  hears.  By  means  of  suggestion,  how- 
ever, a  subject  can  receive  a  uni-lateral  hallucination,  as 
when  an  imaginary  object  is  presented  to  him  which  he 
can  only  see  with  one  eye.  Dumontpallier  was  the  first  to 
study  this  phenomenon,  which  is  common  in  the  insane, 
and  may  be  produced  in  several  ways.  For  instance,  the 
subject  is  told  that  there  is  a  portrait  on  a  blank  sheet 
of  paper,  and  it  is  added,  after  opening  the  right  eye 
only,  "  You  see  this  portrait  ? "  Then  this  eye  is  closed 
and  the  other  is  opened,  with  the  words,  "  You  no  longer 
see  anything."  On  awaking  the  hallucination  remains, 
localized  in  the  right  eye,  with  which  the  subject  sees 
the  portrait,  while  for  the  left  eye  the  paper  remains 
blank.  The  experiment,  performed  in  this  way,  is  simple, 
enough.  Dumontpallier  has  made  it  more  complex  by 
giving  diiferent  hallucinations  to  each  of  the  two 
symmetrical  organs,  to  each  eye  or  each  ear.  Thus,  after 
hypnotizing  the  subject,  he  says  to  the  right  ear  that  it 
is  a  fine,  sunshiny  day,  while  another  person  says  to  the 
left  ear  that  it  is  raining.  On  the  right  side  of  the 
subject's  face  there  is  a  smile,  while  on  the  left  the  lip 


218  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

is  drawn  down,  so  as  to  display  annoyance  at  the  bad 
weather.  The  experiment  is  continued  by  the  interven- 
tion of  sight  and  hearing,  and  the  description  of  a  rustic 
fete,  attended  by  young  people  of  both  sexes,  is  trans- 
mitted to  the  right  ear.  This  description  is  perceived  by 
the  left  cerebral  hemisphere,  as  it  appears  from  the  smile 
on  the  right  side  of  the  face,  while  on  the  left  there  is  an 
expression  of  emotion,  caused  by  the  imitation  of  the 
barkino:  of  a  doo^  at  that  ear.  It  is  said  that  the  different 
expression  of  the  two  halves  of  the  face  is  most  striking. 
These  bilateral  hallucinations,  which  may  also  be  some- 
times observed  in  the  insane,  are  very  interesting  from  a 
psychological  point  of  view.  Dumontpallier  thinks  that 
they  may  be  taken  as  a  proof  of  the  functional  indepen- 
dence of  the  two  cerebral  hemispheres.* 

In  connection  wdth  this  order  of  ideas,  we  will  adduce 
a  fresh  fact,  which  we  have  repeatedly  observed.  Suppose 
the  idea  is  given  to  the  subject  that  a  white  cardboard 
appears  red  to  the  right  eye  only;  if  he  closes  the  left 
eye  while  looking  at  the  cardboard  with  the  right  eye, 
it  appears  to  be  of  a  brilliant  red ;  if  he  uses  both  eyes, 
the  colour  appears  to  be  pink.  It  is  probable  that  the 
sensation  of  whiteness  received  by  the  left  eye  exerts  an 
attenuating  effect  on  the  hallucination  of  the  right  eye, 
and  thus  produces  the  degradation  of  colour.  The  two 
following  facts  are  connected  with  this  experiment : — If 
one  eye  is  fixed  on  a  red  square,  and  the  other  on  a 
white  surface,  the  sensation  of  red  persists,  but  it  is 
eclipsed  from  time  to  time  as  if  by  a  white  cloud.  If  a 
red  image  is  produced  in  one  eye  after  gazing  fixedly  at 

»  Society  de  Diologie,  1882,  p.  786 ;  Berillon,  De  Viml€pen<1ance  fonclion^ 
elle  des  deux  hemispheres  c^r^hraux  {These  de  Paris,  1884,  p.  175). 


HALLUCINATIONS.  2 1 9 

a  green  square,  and  the  other  eye  is  then  opened  on  a 
white  surface,  the  consecutive  monocular  image  is  soon 
effaced.  The  experiment  of  the  unilateral  hallucination 
of  colour  holds  a  middle  place  between  these  two;  the 
hallucinatory  red  image  is  weakened  by  the  sensation  of 
whiteness  received  by  the  other  eye,  but  it  is  not  so 
much  weakened  as  the  consecutive  image,  and  it  is  more 
weakened  than  the  actual  sensation.  With  the  exception 
of  these  differences  in  intensity,  the  three  phenomena 
may  be  referred  to  a  single  fact,  belonging  to  the  study 
of  optics,  and  termed  the  concurrence  or  struggle  of  the 
two  fields  of  vision. 

Nor  is  this  all.  The  result  is  complicated  if  it  is 
suggested  that  the  cardboard  appears  red  to  the  right 
eye,  and  green  to  the  left  eye.  In  the  subjects  observed 
by  us,  we  have  not  found  that  there  was  a  confusion  of 
the  two  suggested  colours,  but  a  species  of  conflict:  at 
first  the  cardboard  appeared  to  be  red,  and  a  moment 
after  it  was  green,  and  this  alternation  of  colour  seemed 
to  perplex  and  weary  the  patient  s  sight.  This  second 
experiment  may  be  explained  like  the  former  one,  by  the 
struggle  between  the  two  fields  of  vision.  In  the  normal 
state  we  find  that  this  struggle  occurs  when  two  dif- 
ferent colours,  such  as  red  and  blue,  are  simultaneously 
presented  to  the  right  and  left  eyes.  The  subject  does  not, 
as  might  have  been  supposed,  see  a  composite  colour,  but 
a  kind  of  mist  floating  over  both  colours,  and  occasionally 
displacing  them.  Finally,  on  looking  through  the  stereo- 
scope at  two  similar  images,  one  white  and  the  other 
black,  the  colour  of  the  images  is  not  fused  into  a 
uniform  grey,  but  a  conflict  takes  place  between  the  two 
fields  of  vision,  so  that  at  one  time  the  bright,  at  the 


220  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

other  the  obscure,  shade  predominates,  and  hence  there 
results  the  impression  of  a  shining  surface.*  These  well- 
known  phenomena  seem  to  explain  the  experiments  on 
hallucinations  which  we  have  mentioned  above. 

Before  going  further,  we  must  draw  some  psychological 
conclusions  from  the  facts  just  enumerated.  Most  modern 
psychologists  accept  the  law  indicated  by  Dugald  Stewart, 
and  more  regularly  developed  by  Taine,t  according  to 
which  every  image  involves  a  momentary  belief  in  the 
reality  of  its  object.  Dugald  Stewart  observed  that  few 
men  could  look  from  the  top  of  a  high  tower  without 
experiencing  a  sensation  of  fear,  although  their  reason 
convinces  them  that  they  run  no  greater  danger  than  if 
they  were  standing  on  the  ground.  "  In  fact,"  as  Taine 
adds,  "  on  looking  suddenly  down,  we  imagine  ourselves 
to  be  suddenly  thrown  headlong  to  the  bottom,  and  this 
imagination  only  terrifies  us,  because  for  an  imperceptible 
moment  of  time  it  is  a  belief  We  instinctively  draw 
back,  as  if  we  felt  ourselves  falling."  In  every  image 
presented  to  the  mind  there  is,  therefore,  the  germ  of  an 
hallucination,  which  only  needs  development.  Such 
development  occurs  in  the  hypnotic  state,  in  which  it  is 
only  necessary  to  name  a  given  object  to  the  subject, 
simply  to  say,  "  Here  is  a  bird ! "  in  order  that  the 
image  suggested  by  the  experimenter  s  words  should 
become  an  hallucination.  Thus  there  is  only  a  difference 
of  degree  between  the  idea  of  an  object,  and  the  halluci- 
nation of  that  object. 

There  is  one  striking  fact  to  be  noted,  namely,  that 

♦  Bernstein,  On  the  Senses.  For  greater  details,  see  Helmholtz,  Optique 
pliysiologiqtie,  p.  964. 

t  Be  V Intelligence^  vol.  i.  p.  89. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  221 

most  of  the  patients  whom  we  have  employed  as  subjects 
of  experiments  in  hallucination  are,  in  the  waking  state, 
endowed  with  a  special  power  of  representing  objects  in 
a  sensible  form.  Liebault  regards  this  quality  as  the 
sio-n  of  individuals  susceptible  of  hypnotism.  Without 
fully  accepting  this  opinion,  we  believe  that  persons  who 
have  what  Galton  terms  the  power  of  visualizing,  are 
more  susceptible  of  visual  hallucinations  than  others. 
When  we  request  one  of  our  subjects  to  picture  to  him- 
self an  absent  person,  he  soon  declares  that  he  sees  that 
person  as  distinctly  as  if  he  were  actually  present.  This 
vivid  power  of  representation  is  frequently  found  in 
hysterical  patients,  and  it  explains  why,  when  such 
patients  are  gathered  together,  they,  by  exchanging 
confidences  or  by  imparting  their  respective  impressions, 
reciprocally  hallucinate  each  other. 

When  susceptible  and  hysterical  subjects  have  been 
hypnotized  by  the  same  experimenter  for  several  days, 
they  often  end  by  remaining  in  a  state  of  permanent 
obsession ;  they  are,  so  to  speak,  possessed,  both  by  day 
in  the  waking  state,  and  at  night  during  their  dreams. 
This  state  of  mind  is  accompanied  by  spontaneous  hallu- 
cinations of  varying  form,  but  of  which  the  experimenter 
is  always  the  object.  One  patient  will  have  an  incubus, 
another  will  be  tormented,  embraced,  etc.  If  several 
subjects  meet  under  the  same  conditions,  and  confidences 
are  exchanged,  a  species  of  epidemic  of  hysterical  delirium 
ensues,  in  which  the  hallucinations  will  be  followed  by 
impulses,  acts  of  violence,  etc.,  which  would  account  for 
the  different  phases  of  the  drama  which  terminated  in 
the  death  of  Urban  Grandier.  One  of  the  present  writers 
was  present  at  a  scene  of  this  nature,  which  showed  that 


222  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

sucb  methods  of  experiment  ought  to  be  conducted  with 
the  utmost  care.* 

As  we  have  just  seen,  hallucination  consists  in  the 
vivid  external  projection  of  an  image.  But  these  terms 
have  the  defect  of  treatino^  the  imaofe  as  a  thinof,  as  a 
unity.  Yet  reflection  soon  shows  that  this  assumed  unity 
is  composed  of  numerous  and  heterogenous  elements — 
that  it  is  an  association,  a  group,  a  fusion,  a  complexity, 
a  multiplicity.^  The  image  of  a  ball  is  the  resultant  of 
complex  sensations  of  sight,  touch,  and  muscular  sense. 
It  is,  therefore,  interesting  to  know  if,  when  an  image  is 
associated  by  contiguity  with  several  others,  the  external 
projection  of  the  first  image  involves  that  of  the  others. 
This  occurs  in  numerous  cases  of  hallucination  which 
may  be  referred  to  the  action  of  the  memory.  Heiden- 
hain  gave  a  series  of  hallucinations  to  a  hypnotized 
student,  in  which  he  went  to  the  hippodrome,  and  then  to 
the  Jardin  des  Flantes,  where  he  saw  the  lions  come  out 
of  their  cages.  When,  some  time  afterwards,  the  subject 
was  again  hypnotized,  the  same  series  of  hallucinations 
occurred  spontaneously.  So,  again,  if  the  subject  was 
reminded  of  his  normal  life,  or,  rather,  if  an  hallucinatory 
suggestion  was  made  to  him,  the  memory  of  subsequent 
events  was  evoked  in  its  turn,  and  formed  a  tableau  or 
hallucinatory  scene.  In  this  way  a  subject  may  be  con- 
strained to  live  over  again  a  part  of  his  life,  and  secrets 
are  revealed  which  would  never  have  been  uttered  in  the 
waking  state,  nor  even  perhaps  under  hypnotism.  We 
may,  for  example,  cite  the  story  of  the  singer  given  by 

*  Ch.  Fere,  Les  hjpnotiques  Ji7js{(friques  consid^r^es  comme  sujets  d'ex- 
patience  mentale,  etc.  (Soct^te  Medico-psychologinue,  1883). 
t  Bibot,  Maladies  de  la  memoire,  p.  15.     Paris. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  223 

Mesnet.  If  a  curved  stick  was  given  to  him,  which  he 
took  for  a  gun,  his  military  recollections  revived ;  he 
loaded  his  gun,  crouched  down,  took  aim  and  fired.  If  a 
roll  of  paper  was  given  to  him,  and  a  light  was  flashed 
across  his  eyes,  recollections  of  his  present  profession  of 
singer  at  a  cafe-chantant  were  aroused ;  he  unrolled  the 
paper  and  sang  loudly.  Finally,  if  a  story  is  told  to  the 
subject,  and  he  is  then  hypnotized,  it  is  not  impossible 
that  as  soon  as  he  is  put  upon  the  track,  he  may  have  an 
hallucination  of  all  the  events  in  succession,  as  they  were 
related  to  him. 

This  tendency  of  hallucinatory  images  to  suggest 
themselves  shows  that  the  law  of  the  association  of 
ideas  by  proximity  may  be  exerted  without  the  partici- 
pation of  the  subject's  intelligence  and  will.  One  image 
provokes  another,  in  virtue  of  the  bond  which  unites 
them,  and  in  the  same  way  the  second  suggests  the  third. 
This  is  one  of  the  clearest  manifestations  of  cerebral 
automatism. 

In  pushing  the  analysis  a  little  further,  it  may  be 
observed  that  in  these  kinds  of  hallucination  it  is  not 
merely  the  image,  taken  by  itself,  which  is  externally 
projected,  but  the  bond  of  association  which  unites 
several  images.  It  is,  in  fact,  this  association  which 
formulates  the  hallucination ;  it  produces  the  successive 
projection  of  the  images  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
grouped  in  the  mind.  This  proves  that  the  law  laid 
down  by  Dugald  Stewart  with  respect  to  the  states 
of  consciousness  also  applies  to  the  relations  of  these 
states.  In  reply  to  the  question,  What  is  meant  by  ex- 
ternal projection  ?  we  answer  that  it  is  the  belief  in  the 
reality  of  a  thing.     The  external  projection  of  an  image 


224  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

is,  therefore,  the  belief  in  its  reality.  So  that,  if  it  is  true 
that  we  are  inclined  to  make  an  external  projection  of 
the  associated  images  existing  in  the  mind,  this  implies 
that  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  things  are  in  reality 
associated  together,  just  as  their  images  are  associated 
in  the  mind.  This  is  no  new  idea ;  a  considerable  time 
has  elapsed  since  it  was  formulated  by  Stuart  Mill,  and  it 
is  confirmed  by  the  facts  of  hypnosis  in  the  most  striking 
manner. 

Speaking  generally,  we  may  say  that,  whenever  two 
images  are  in  association,  an  implicit  affirmation  of  the 
existence  of  a  relation  between  two  things  ensues ;  this 
is  an  opinion  which,  therefore,  must  be  referred  to  an 
association  of  externally  projected  images. 

II. 

One  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  hypnotic 
hallucination  is  the  permanence  of  its  localization.  Take 
the  hallucination  of  a  portrait,  which  is  instructive  in 
many  respects.  If,  by  means  of  suggestion,  a  portrait  is 
caused  to  appear  on  a  sheet  of  cardboard  of  which  both 
sides  are  alike,  the  picture  will  always  be  seen  on  the 
same  side  of  the  cardboard,  and  in  whatever  direction  it 
maybe  presented  to  him,  the  subject  will  always  place 
it  in  the  position  which  it  occupied  at  the  moment  of 
suggestion,  so  that  the  picture  may  not  be  inverted, 
nor  even  inclined.  If  the  cardboard  is  turned  round, 
the  portrait  is  no  longer  seen,  and  if  it  is  turned  upside 
down,  the  portrait  is  seen  with  its  head  downwards. 
The  subject  never  makes  a  mistake ;  if  his  eyes  are 
covered,  or  if  the  experimenter  stands  behind  him  while 


HALLUCINATIONS.  225 

changing  tlie  position  of  the  object,  his  answers  are 
always  in  conformity  with  its  original  localization. 

This  fact  is  still  more  clearly  shown  by  an  experi- 
ment devised  by  one  of  the  present  writers.*  We  place 
a  blank  card  on  a  blank  sheet  of  paper,  and  with  a  blunt 
pointer,  which  does  not,  however,  touch  the  paper,  we 
follow  the  outline  of  the  card  so  as  to  suggest  the  idea  of 
a  black  line.  We  ask  the  subject,  on  awaking,  to  fold 
the  paper  in  accordance  with  these  imaginary  lines ;  he 
holds  the  paper  as  far  from  him  as  it  .was  at  the  moment 
of  suoforestion,  and  he  folds  it  so  as  to  form  a  rectanf^le 
which  precisely  covers  the  card. 

Charcot  has  often  repeated  a  curious  experiment 
which  fundamentally  resembles  the  foregoing  one.  It  is 
suggested  to  the  subject  that  there  is  a  portrait  on  a 
blank  card,  which  is  then  mixed  with  a  dozen  others 
which  appear  to  be  precisely  similar.  The  subject  is 
requested,  on  awaking,  to  run  his  eye  over  these  cards, 
which  he  does  without  understanding  the  reason,  but 
when  he  comes  to  the  card  on  which  the  imaginary 
portrait  was  traced  he  sees  it  at  once. 

All  these  experiments  seem  to  imply  that  the  halluci- 
natory image  produced  in  the  subject  by  verbal  sugges- 
tion does  not  remain  in  his  brain  in  a  vague  and  floating 
state;  it  is  probable,  as  one  of  the  present  writers  has 
shown,t  that  this  image  is  associated  with  some  external 
mark — a  dot,  for  instance,  or  a  raised  spot, — some  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  blank  card  which  was  shown  to  him 
when  the  suggestion  was  made,  and  this  association  of  the 

*  Ch.  Fere,  Les  hypnotiques  hysteriques  considered  comme  sujeta  d\'X- 
perience,  etc.    Paris,  1883. 

t  Binet,  UEallucination  (Itevue  rh'Lsophiquey  April,  Mcy,  1884). 


226  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

cerebral  image  with  an  external  mark  would  explain  the 
series  of  facts  of  which  we  have  given  an  account. 

One  detail  of  these  experiments  is  significant.  If, 
instead  of  putting  the  pack  of  cards  into  the  subject's 
hands,  we  show  him  the  imaginary  portrait  while  hold- 
ing it  two  yards  from  his  eyes,  the  card  still  appears  to 
him  to  be  white,  although  a  real  photograph  would 
appear  to  be  grey.  If  the  card  is  gradually  brought 
nearer  to  his  eyes,  the  imaginary  portrait  becomes 
visible,  but  it  must  be  brought  much  nearer  than  an 
ordinary  photograph  before  the  subject  can  say  for  whom 
it  is  meant.  This  peculiarity  can  be  explained  on  the 
assumption  that  the  hallucinatory  image  is  evoked  by 
distinctive  marks  on  the  card  which  are  only  visible  at  a 
short  distance.  So  again,  the  subject  cannot  distinguish 
the  portrait  through  a  sheet  of  tissue  paper  placed  upon 
the  card.  With  the  help  of  an  opera  glass,  the  subject  can 
recognize  the  object  of  hallucination  when  it  is  too  far 
for  him  to  perceive  it  with  his  naked  eye,  and  the  same 
explanation  applies  to  this  experiment,  although  there  is 
an  air  of  paradox  about  it. 

Without  going  further  into  the  matter,  these  observa- 
tions may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  formula : 
The  imaginary  object  presented  by  hallucination  is 
perceived  under  the  same  conditions  as  if  it  were  real. 
This  formula  has  served  as  our  guide  in  a  series  of 
experiments  on  visual  hallucination,  which  we  have 
ecdeavoured  to  modify  by  optical  instruments.  We 
proceed  to  indicate  the  most  important  results  of  these 
researches  into  what  Janet  terms  hallucinatory  optics. 

The  origin  of  these  researches  is  found  in  an  early 
experiment  by  Brewster,  which  was  performed  in  the 


HALLUCINATIONS.  227 

following  way : — It  is  well  known  that  if,  in  the  normal 
state,  a  finger  is  pressed  upon  the  eye  so  as  to  divert  it 
from  its  normal  position,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
individual  looks  fixedly  at  some  external  object,  his  sight 
is  doubled,  and  he  sees  two  objects  instead  of  one. 
Brewster  performed  this  experiment  on  a  subject  who 
had  visual  hallucinations,  and  pressure  on  the  eye  caused 
a  duplication  of  the  imaginary  object.  Paterson  tells  us 
that  this  curious  experiment  was  repeated  in  analogous 
circumstances  by  a  student  subject  to  hallucinations. 
When  this  student  was  crossing  a  garden,  he  perceived 
a  phantom,  wrapped  in  a  large  blue  cloak,  standing  a 
little  way  off  under  a  tree.  The  student  desired  to 
verify  Brewster's  famous  experiment,  and  pressed  one 
eyeball,  which  only  had  the  effect  of  rendering  the  figure 
less  distinct.  But  on  looking  obliquely  he  saw  the  same 
figure  double,  and  of  the  natural  size.  This  observation 
has  been  confirmed  by  others.  Ball  mentions  an  hys- 
terical female  servant  who  was  subject  to  ecstatic  crises 
in  which  the  Virgin  appeared  to  her  in  a  splendid  robe ; 
pressure  on  the  eyeball  caused  a  duplication  of  the  vision, 
and  she  beheld  two  Virgins. 

This  experiment  of  duplication  has  served  as  the 
point  of  departure  for  researches  intended  to  establish 
the  reality  of  the  subjective  phenomena  produced  in 
hypnotic  subjects.*  It  occurred  to  one  of  the  present 
writers  to  substitute  a  prism  for  pressure  on  the  eyeball. 
If,  when  regarding  external  objects,  a  prism  is  placed 
before  one  eye,  the  objects  appear  to  be  double,  and  one 
of  the  images  presents  a  deviation  of  which  the  direction 

*  Fere,  Mouvements  de  la  pupille  et  propri^^s  du  prigme  dans  les  haU 
lucinations  provoqu€es  des  hyst^iiques  (Soc.  de  Biologies  December,  1881). 


228  AKIxMAL    MAGNETISM. 

and  extent  may  be  calculated.  If,  during  the  hypnotic 
sleep,  it  is  suggested  to  the  subject  that  a  profile  portrait 
is  on  a  table  of  dark  wood  before  him,  he  distinctly  sees 
this  portrait  on  awaking.  If,  without  warning,  a  prism 
is  placed  before  one  eye,  the  subject  is  astonished  to  see 
two  portraits,  and  the  position  of  the  false  image  is 
always  in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  physics.  Two  of 
our  subjects  answered  correctly  in  the  cataleptic  state, 
although  they  were  unacquainted  with  the  properties  of 
the  prism.  Moreover,  by  concealing  its  edges  they  may 
be  deceived  as  to  the  precise  position  in  which  it  is 
placed.  If  the  base  of  the  prism  is  uppermost,  the  two 
images  are  placed  one  below  the  other,  and  if  the  base 
is  lateral,  the  images  are  side  by  side.  Finally,  the 
table  may  be  brought  so  near  that  the  duplication  of 
the  image  ceases,  and  this  will  serve  as  an  index.* 

This  experiment  with  the  prism  is  only  a  variation 
of  the  one  performed  by  Brewster.  The  prism,  as  well  as 
ocular  pressure,  exerts  two  distinct  actions  on  the  hallu- 
cinatory image — that  of  duplication  and  of  deviation. 
Deviation  by  means  of  the  prism  is  a  more  accurate 
phenomenon  than  when  it  is  effected  by  ocular  pressure, 
since,  when  the  position  of  the  prism  and  its  distance 
from  the  object  is  known,  it  is  not  only  possible  to 
predicate  its  direction,  but  to  estimate  its. extent.  It  is 
an  interesting  fact  that,  in  the  case  of  a  given  distance, 
the  prism  produces  or  fails  to  produce  a  duplication  of 
the  image  in  proportion  as  the  sight  of  the  eye  is  more 
or  less  normal  This  same  remark  applies  to  the  vision 
of  real  objects  in  the  waking  state. 

*  Fere,  Soc.  de  Biohgle,  October,  1881 ;  Frogres  Medical,  December, 
1881. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  229 

One  of  the  present  writers  *  has  substituted  other 
optical  instruments  for  the  prism,  in  order  to  verify  and 
develop  the  former  experiments.  An  opera-glass  brings 
imaginary  objects  nearer,  or  makes  them  appear  further 
off,  just  as  if  the  objects  were  real.  We  begin  by  sug- 
gesting a  given  hallucination,  either  placed  upon  the  wall 
of  the  laboratory  or,  which  is  better,  on  a  screen  covered 
with  white ;  it  may  be  a  bird  perched  upon  the  wall,  a 
lizard  which  runs  up  it,  a  flower,  or  a  picture  hung  upon 
the  wall.  If  the  subject  is  made  to  look  at  the  hallucina- 
tory object  through  an  opera-glass,  it  appears  to  be  nearer 
or  more  distant,  according  to  the  end  of  the  glass  pre- 
sented to  his  eye.  It  is  well  to  guard  against  imposture, 
by  not  allowing  the  subject  to  see  which  end  of  the  glass 
is  in  use.  It  is  the  simplest  arrangement  to  have  two 
cards  of  equal  size,  each  pierced  with  two  openings,  and 
fastened  with  sealing  wax  to  both  ends  of  the  opera- 
glass.  This  will  prevent  the  subject  from  perceiving 
real  objects  on  the  field  of  the  glass,  which  might,  owing 
to  the  changes  of  dimension,  serve  as  an  index  of  its 
position.  For  the  same  reason,  a  plain  and  even  surface 
should  be  chosen  as  a  back  ground  for  the  hallucination. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  the  opera-glass  will 

not  make  the  object  appear  more  or  less  remote  unless  it 

has  been  adapted  to  the  subject's  sight.     Thus  W , 

who  is  short  sighted,  could  see  nothing  through  a  glass 

which  had  been  adapted  to  C 's  long  sight.     Hence 

the  subject  must  be  requested  to  adapt  the  glasses  to  his 

sight  before  he  is  hypnotized.     A  great  difference  may  be 

observed  in  the  way  in  which  subjects  are  affected  by  the 

experiment.     C and  D merely  declare  that  the 

•  Biuet,  U Hallucination  (Jievue  Philosophigu?,  April,  May,  1884). 
11 


230  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

imaginary  object  is  at  one  time  near,  at  another  far  off; 
and  this  change  of  distance  does  not  surprise  them  ;  only 
if  an  unclean  beast  is  the  object  of  suggestion  and  he  is 
made  to  appear  close  to  them,  they  utter  a  cry  of  terror. 

W ,  who  is  much  more  intelligent,  always   evinces 

the  most  lively  astonishment.  When  a  bird  perching 
on  the  branch  of  a  tree  is  the  object  of  suggestion,  she 
cannot  understand  why  it  should  be  close  to  her  at  one 
moment  and  far  from  her  at  another.  If  we  tell  her  that 
the  bird  is  moving  from  place  to  place,  flying  nearer  or 
further  away,  she  rejects  this  explanation,  and  replies 
that  the  tree  also  seems  to  change  its  position.  She 
finally  concludes  that  her  eyes  are  affected,  so  as  to 
change  the  apparent  distance  of  objects,  which  is  a 
reasonable,  if  not  a  just  conclusion.  These  reflections 
are  all  made  during  the  state  of  somnambulism. 

This  experiment  with  the  opera-glass  may  be  modified 
by  making  use  of  hallucinatory  portraits.  The  portrait 
of  a  given  person  may  be  made  to  appear  on  a  square 
of  white  paper,  and  a  series  of  experiments  may  be 
performed  on  this  imaginary  portrait,  which  are  only  a 
development  of  those  with  the  opera-glass,  since  a  final 
analysis  must  refer  them  all  to  an  application  of  the 
laws  of  refraction.  If  a  magnifying  glass  is  placed  before 
the  imaginary  portrait,  the  subject  declares  that  it  is 
enlarged,  and  if  the  lens  is  sloped,  the  portrait  is  dis- 
torted. If  the  sheet  of  paper  is  placed  at  a  distance 
equal  to  twice  the  focal  length  of  the  lens,  the  por- 
trait appears  to  be  inverted.  These  experiments  do  not 
always  succeed,  but  if  under  favourable  conditions  they 
are  successful  in  only  one  instance,  they  must  be  accepted 
as  genuine. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  231 

Again,  a  prism  with  three  equal  facets  is  passed  over 
the  white  paper,  and  the  subject  is  requested  to  look 
through  it  at  the  portrait,  beginning  with  its  upper 
part ;  he  sees  two  heads  instead  of  one,  and  these  heads 
are  enlarged  in  a  direction  corresponding  with  the  orien- 
tation of  the  prism.  Now,  we  must  observe  that  the 
surface  of  the  paper  on  which  the  prism  is  placed  is 
perfectly  white  and  smooth,  so  that  no  one  ignorant  of 
the  properties  of  a  prism  could  perceive  that  it  doubled 
the  image  of  the  subjacent  morsel  of  paper.  If 
again  the  paper  is  applied  to  one  facet  of  the  prism,  the 
subject  sees  only  a  single  portrait,  which  seems  to  be 
folded  in  two.  These  appearances  all  conform  to  the 
reality ;  the  subject  would  see  the  same  series  of  modifi- 
cations if  there  were  really  a  picture  on  the  paper. 
Under  similar  conditions  a  doubly  refracting  crystal 
gives  two  images,  which  are  modified  by  revolving  the 
crystal  on  its  axis. 

The  last  experiment  of  this  nature  is  that  with 
the  microscope.  The  question  arises  whether,  if  a  given 
preparation  is  supposed  to  be  mounted  on  a  micro- 
scopic slide,  and  the  subject  is  made  to  examine  it 
through  the  microscope,  the  hallucinatory  image  will 
appear  to  him  to  be  magnified ;  whether  this  enlargement 
will  be  sufficient  to  reveal  to  him  structural  details 
which  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye ;  whether,  for 
instance,  he  will  distinguish  the  corpuscles  in  the  drop 
of  blood  suggested  to  be  on  the  slide,  or  if  he  will  see 
the  stomata  in  a  fragment  of  vegetable  epidermis.  The 
experiment  is  difficult,  since  most  of  the  subjects  who 
look  at  the  microscopic  slide  fail  to  discover  the  imagin- 
ary preparation.     Repeated  attempts  have  convinced  us 


232  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

that  the  microscope  enlarges  the  hallucinatory  image — 
that  a  spider  s  foot,  for  example,  becomes  enormous, — but 
we  have  not  observed  that  hypnotic  subjects  discover 
details  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 

It  is  much  more  easy  to  obtain  the  reflection  of  an 
imaginary  object  in  a  mirror.  It  may  be  suggested  to 
the  subject  that  an  object  is  placed  on  a  given  point  of 
the  table,  and  if  a  mirror  is  placed  behind  that  point 
the  patient  immediately  sees  two  objects.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, the  appearance  of  one  cat  is  suggested,  a  second 
is  likewise  seen,  but  the  two  objects  are  not  always 
alike.  On  one  occasion  we  gave  to  our  subject  the 
hallucination  of  a  white  cat,  and  the  mirror  caused 
another  to  appear,  which  was  of  a  grey  colour.  The 
reflection  of  the  imaginary  object  appeared  to  the 
subject  to  be  just  as  real  as  the  imaginary  object  of 
suggestion.  Thus,  w^hen  the  mirror  was  in  its  place  and 
the  subject  was  told  to  look  at  the  beautiful  butterfly 
perched  upon  the  table,  she  at  once  exclaimed  that  she  saw 
two  butterflies.  When  desired  to  catch  them  both,  she 
made  the  gesture  of  seizing  the  one  perched  before  the 
mirror,  and  fastened  it  with  a  pin  to  her  bodice.     This  at 

least  was  done  by  D ,  while  C refused  to  be  so 

cruel  as  to  run  a  pin  through  the  butterfly.  She  then 
tried  to  catch  the  second  butterfly,  of  which  she  saw  the 
reflection  in  the  mirror,  but  as  her  hand  came  in  contact 
with  the  glass,  she  was  unable  to  reach  the  spot  which 
the  butterfly  seemed  to  occupy.    It  was  curious  to  observe 

W 's  behaviour  at  such  a  time.     After  knocking  her 

hand  against  the  glass  several  times  in  succession,  she  gave 
it  up  with  indignation ;  disregarding  our  orders,  she  abso- 
lutely refused  to  repeat  the  attempt,  saying,  "  I  cannot 


HALLUCINATIONS.  233 

do  it,  I  cannot  do  it."  It  may  easily  be  shown  that  the 
subject  does  not  place  the  imaginary  object  on  the  surface 
of  the  mirror,  but  sees  it  within  the  mirror.  In  fact, 
if  the  mirror  is  advanced,  withdrawn,  or  inclined,  so  that 
it  could  no  longer  reflect  the  supposed  object,  the  double 
vision  ceases. 

These  primary  experiments  are  rude.  They  may  be 
summarily  explained  by  saying  that  the  subject  sees  the 
mirror,  and  logically  concludes  that  the  object  of  sug- 
gestion must  be  reflected  in  it.  We  do  not  assert  that 
this  phenomenon  of  auto-suggestion  is  impossible,  yet  it 
seems  to  be  excluded  by  the  following  experiments : — We 
recur  to  the  hallucination  of  a  portrait,  which  we  have 
already  employed,  and  shall  have  further  occasion  to 
employ.  A  prism  of  total  reflection  is  placed  upon  the 
blank  sheet  on  which  there  is  an  imaginary  portrait. 
The  resemblance  of  this  prism  to  a  mirror  cannot  warn 
the  subject  of  what  is  to  follow,  and  yet  he  never  fails  to 
see  a  second  portrait,  like  the  first  one,  when  he  looks  at 
the  hypothenuse  facet  of  the  prism.  If  the  portrait  is 
then  placed  opposite  to  a  mirror,  and  it  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  profile  is  turned  to  the  right,  it  appears  in 
the  mirror  to  be  turned  to  the  left.  The  reflected  picture 
is  therefore  symmetrical  with  the  hallucinatory  image. 
If,  without  allowing  the  subject  to  see  what  is  done,  the 
paper  is  turned  upside  down,  the  reflected  portrait  also 
appears  to  be  inverted,  and,  which  is  to  be  noted  as  in 
agreement  with  the  laws  of  optics,  the  profile  is  turned 
to  the  right.  We  repeat  that  the  imaginary  portrait  is 
turned  to  the  right,  and  in  the  mirror  it  is  turned  to 
the  left,  but  that  if  the  paper  is  inverted,  it  appears 
to  be  turned  to  the  right.     Such  combinations  would  not 


234  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

be  invented,  and  a  still  more  complex  experiment  may 
be  performed.  An  inscription  of  several  lines  may  be 
substituted  for  the  portrait,  and  in  the  mirror  it  :g 
inverted  and  runs  from  right  to  left.  If  the  paper  is 
turned  upside  down,  so  also  is  the  reflection  of  the 
inscription,  and  at  the  same  time  it  ceases  to  run  from 
right  to  left.  This  experiment  frequently,  but  not  in- 
variably, succeeds,  and  that  in  a  way  which  excludes  all 
suspicion  of  fraud.  Yet  few  persons  are  aware  that, 
while  reflected  writing  must  be  read  from  right  to  left, 
this  condition  ceases  when  the  reflected  writing  is  in- 
verted. Such  difficulties  do  not  exist  for  the  hypnotic 
subject,  who  only  sees  and  does  not  reason. 

Since  the  imaginary  object  created  by  hallucination 
acts  in  all  respects  as  if  it  were  real,  it  may  be  asked 
whether  that  object  is  concealed  by  the  interposition 
of  a  screen.  This  depends  upon  the  subject,  and  the 
results  are  extremely  varied.  In  the  simplest  case  the 
hallucination  is  destroyed  by  the  screen,  and  the  subject 
declares  that  he  has  ceased  to  see  anything.  In  the  case 
of  other  subjects  the  screen  has  not  this  eflect,  the 
hallucination  persists,  without  any  change  of  place,  and 
if  the  subject  is  ordered  to  seize  the  object  of  sug- 
gestion, his  hand  goes  to  the  other  side  of  the  screen  in 
search  of  it.  In  other  subjects,  again,  the  imaginary 
vision  is  not  interrupted  by  an  opaque  body,  but  the 
object  is  transferred  to  that  body. 

We  are  unable  to  assign  a  cause  for  these  variations, 
which  may  be  noted  in  different  subjects,  and  sometimes 
in  the  same  subject,  in  the  course  of  a  series  of  experi- 
ments. We  need  only  remark  that  peculiarities  of  the 
same  kind  occur   in   the   vision   of  real  objects  during 


HALLUCINATIONS.  235 

somnambulism.  In  some  somnambulists  the  vision  of 
real  objects  is  not  destroyed  by  the  interposition  of  a 
screen,  and  it  is  destroyed  in  others.  It  must  be  clearly 
understood  that  these  experiments  were  not  concerned 
with  the  wonderful  phenomena  of  vision  through  a  thick 
bandage,  of  which  so  much  was  said  in  former  times,  and 
for  the  demonstration  of  which  the  Burdin  prize  was 
offered  by  the  Academy  of  Medicine.  We  have  not, 
strictly  speaking,  to  do  with  vision  through  a  screen,  but 
with  an  hallucinatory  vision  which  persists  in  spite  of 
interposed  screen,  which  is  very  different.  The  incon- 
stancy of  these  phenomena,  however,  decided  us  not  to 
make  them  the  object  of  continued  study. 

The  logical  connection  of  the  foregoing  experiments 
will  be  readily  seen.  The  first  in  date  and  importance 
is  that  of  ocular  pressure.  This  is  a  curious  discovery, 
which  must  serve  as  a  starting-point  for  a  whole  series 
of  fresh  researches,  and  it  is  the  first  instance  of  experi- 
ment on  hallucinations,  although  it  has  been  long 
neglected,  and  has  only  become  fruitful  in  our  own  day. 
The  prism  experiment  is  merely  a  variant  on  that  by 
Brewster  ;  instead  of  the  mechanical  deviation  of  the  eye 
produced  by  the  finger,  the  prism  causes  the  deviation  of 
the  luminous  ray  before  it  enters  the  eye,  but  the  result 
of  double  vision  is  the  same.  The  experiment  with  the 
opera-glass,  again,  may  be  regarded  as  a  development  of 
that  with  the  prism,  since  both  instruments  are  founded 
on  the  laws  of  refraction  of  light.  Finally,  the  mirror  is 
as  closely  connected  with  the  preceding  experiments  as 
in  physics  the  phenomena  of  the  reflection  of  light  are 
connected  with  the  phenomena  of  refraction.  All  these 
new  facts  are  logically  derived  from  Brewster's  experi- 


236  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

ment,  which  virtually  includes  them  all,  just  as  the 
properties  of  lines,  angles,  and  surfaces  virtually  include 
the  whole  of  geometry.  It  is  only  necessary  to  deduce 
and  support  each  deduction  by  experimental  research. 

In  order  to  give  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  these 
experiments,  we  must  decide  between  three  hypotheses. 
1.  A  suggestion  is  made;  the  subject  is  aware  that  a 
prism  is  placed  before  his  eyes  which  has  the  property 
of  duplicating  objects,  or  an  opera-glass  which  enlarges 
them,  etc.  But  this  first  hypothesis  must  be  rejected, 
since  it  is  evident  that  the  subject  is  ignorant  of  the 
complex  properties  of  the  lens,  of  the  simple  prism,  the 
bi-refracting  prism,  and  of  the  prism  of  total  reflection, 
and  although  the  subject  may  be  acquainted  with  the 
other  instruments,  such  as  an  opera-glass,  care  is  taken 
to  conceal  them  in  the  performance  of  the  experiment. 
Therefore,  unless  we  suppose  that  the  experimenter  has 
been  incautious  enough  to  announce  the  result  before- 
hand, it  must  be  considered  certain  that  suggestion  in 
this  sense  has  had  nothing  to  do  with  it.  2.  The 
optical  instruments  employed  have  modified  the  real 
objects  in  the  subject's  field  of  vision,  and  these  modifica- 
tions have  served  as  an  index  from  which  he  could  infer 
similar  modifications  in  the  imaginary  object.  Although 
this  second  explanation  is  better  than  the  former  one,  it 
appears  to  us  insufficient.  It  is  opposed  by  numerous 
facts  already  cited — by  the  precise  localization  of  the 
hallucinaticn  on  a  point  which  the  experimenter  is  only 
able  to  find  by  the  aid  of  elaborate  measurements ;  by 
the  recognition  of  an  imaginary  portrait  on  a  blank  card 
mixed  with  other  cards  which  appear  to  us  precisely  the 
same ;   by  the  inversion  of  the  imaginary  portrait  when 


HALLUCINATIONS.  237 

the  .card  itself  is  inverted,  without  the  subject  being 
aware  of  it,  etc.  We  adopt  a  third  hypothesis,  which 
has  already  been  indicated.  3.  The  hallucinatory  image 
is  associated  with  external  and  material  marks,  and  the 
modifications  produced  by  the  optical  instruments  on 
these  marks  modify  the  hallucination  in  their  turn.  The 
following  observations  seem  to  confirm  this  theory. 

We  will  first  give  an  account  of  the  experiments 
performed  by  Marie  and  Azoulay,  on  the  duration  of  the 
perception  of  the  imaginary  object.  These  observers 
have  shown  that  it  takes  a  longer  time  to  perceive  an 
imaginary  object  than  when  the  object  is  real.*  "The 
apparatus  consists  of  a  white  strip  placed  on  Marey's 
cylinder ;  as  the  cylinder  revolves,  the  strip  passes 
before  a  spy-glass  of  somewhat  small  diameter,  through 
which  the  subject  looks.  At  the  moment  when  the' 
subject  sees  the  white  strip,  he  gives  an  electric  signal. 
The  precise  moment  at  which  the  strip  passes  before  the 
glass  is  known,  so  that  in  orxier  to  ascertain  the  time 
of  personal  reaction  it  is  only  necessary  to  measure  the 
period  which  elapsed  between  that  moment,  and  the 
moment  when  the  signal  was  given. 

"  In  the  first  series  of  experiments  we  estimated,  in 
the  case  of  an  hysteric  patient  attended  by  Charcot,  the 
time  of  reaction  in  the  waking  state,  making  use  of  a 
real  white  strip.  This  time  was  on  an  average  0*18'', 
and  it  was  the  same  in  the  case  of  a  normal  individual. 
In  the  state  of  somnambulism  the  time  was  020'',  that  is, 
it  was  increased  by  0'02".  We  then,  instead  of  employing 
a  real  white  strip,  suggested  to  the  hypnotized  subject 
that  there  was  a  white  strip  on  a  certain  part  of  the 
*  Socx€l€d.e  Biologic,  July  31,  1885. 


238  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

blackened  cylinder,  although  there  was  in  fact  absolutely 
nothing  to  distinguish  this  part  of  the  cylinder.  We 
told  the  subject  to  indicate  the  moment  at  which  she 
saw  the  imaginary  white  strip.  The  time  of  reaction 
was  022".  "We  then  awoke  the  subject  and  again 
estimated  the  time  of  reaction.  In  this  case  the  average 
was  0-23". 

"  It  remained  to  be  seen  whether  this  average  varied 
during  the  period  of  suggestion.  On  the  following  day, 
after  the  lapse  of  twenty-four  hours,  we  found  that  the 
time  of  reaction  was  102",  and  after  forty-eight  hours  it 
was  1*114".  We  could  not  carry  our  researches  further, 
since  at  the  end  of  seventy-two  hours  the  suggestion  had 
vanished,  and  the  subject  could  no  longer  see  the  strip 
on  the  cylinder. 

"  These  are  the  two  points  on  which  we  wish  to 
insist :  first,  on  the  value  of  these  experiments  as  a  means 
of  verification,  since,  as  we  were  able  to  ascertain,  simu- 
lation is  absolutely  impossible.  However  intent  the 
subject  may  be,  he  cannot,  either  by  sight  or  by  the 
employment  of  some  rhythm,  succeed  in  producing  such 
a  tracing  as  those  we  have  obtained,  since  in  these 
tracings  all  the  times  of  reaction  agree  almost  perfectly. 
Therefore,  the  images  furnished  by  suggestion  may,  as 
well  as  the  real  images,  be  checked  by  the  graphic 
method.  Secondly,  the  time  of  reaction  increases  enor- 
mously, but  not  in  direct  proportion  with  the  duration 
of  the  suggestion. 


Seconds. 

Immediately  after  suggestion  it  is     ... 

0-23' 

Twenty-four  hours  after  it  is 

1-02" 

This  is  an  increase  of 

0-79" 

Forty-eight  hours  after  it  is 

0114" 

This  is  an  increase  of 

0093" 

HALLUCINATIONS.  239 

"  In  a  second  series  of  experiments,  the  relative  values 
of  the  time  of  personal  reaction  was  the  same,  although 
each  was  slightly  raised  to  the  amount  of  0*02"  or  003"." 

The  primary  fact  to  be  deduced  from  these  experi- 
ments is  that  for  the  perception  of  a  real  object  the  time 
of  reaction  is  0*18'' ;  for  that  of  an  imaginary  object  it 
is  0'23".  The  probable  reason  for  this  difference  is  that 
in  the  vision  of  a  real  colour,  there  is  only  a  single 
phenomenon—  the  sensation  received  by  the  eye.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  vision  of  an  imaginary  colour,  fixed 
by  suggestion  on  an  external  point,  two  things  are 
involved — the  vision  of  the  point,  and  then  the  appearance 
of  the  imaginary  colour  on  that  point.  This  double 
phenomenon  must  occupy  more  time  than  a  simple 
sensation.  Moreover,  as  time  goes  on,  the  association 
between  the  point  in  question  and  the  hallucinatory 
image  is  relaxed,  until  at  last  it  disappears,  since  the 
moment  comes  when  the  point  ceases  to  arouse  any 
image  in  the  subject's  mind.  Hence  we  understand  why 
the  duration  of  the  time  of  reaction  increases  up  to  the 
moment  when  the  perception  ceases  altogether.  The 
graphic  method  has  the  advantage  of  seizing  these  pro- 
gressive modifications  in  the  duration  of  the  imaginary 
perception,  delicate  phenomena  which  completely  escape 
from  simple  observation.  For  this  reason  the  experi- 
ments by  Marie  and  Azoulay  have  a  real  psychological 
interest,  teaching  us  how  to  measure  the  force  of  a  mental 
association  as  it  becomes  weaker. 

Londe,  chief  of  the  chemical  works  at  the  clinical 
establishment  of  the  Salpetriere,  informed  us  of  the 
following  fact,  which  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  pro- 
tracted suggestion,  confirming  the  ideas  just  set  forth. 


240  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

On  one  occasion  when  an  hysterical  patient  was  in  a  state 
of  somnambulism  he  approached  her,  and  showed  her  a 
plate,  representing  a  view  in  the  Pyrenees,  with  asses 
ascending  the  hill,  and  said,  "Look  at  your  portrait. 
You  are  quite  naked."  The  subject  happened  to  see  the 
plate  when  she  awoke,  and  since  she  was  furious  at 
seeing  herself  represented  in  a  state  of  nature,  she 
jumped  upon  it,  and  broke  it.  Two  photographs  had, 
however,  been  taken  from  the  plate,  and  these  were 
carefully  preserved.  The  patient's  fury  was  excited 
whenever  she  saw  them,  since  she  always  saw  herself 
represented  naked,  and  after  two  months  had  elapsed 
the  hallucination  still  remained. 

This  extraordinarily  long  survival  of  the  hallucination 
is  easily  explained  by  the  theory  of  distinctive  marks. 
In  fact,  photography  presents  to  the  subject  an  immense 
number  of  such  distinctive  marks,  which  become  associ- 
ated with  the  hallucinatory  image  and  evoke  it  with  in- 
vincible force  by  accumulating  their  effect.  The  most 
curious  feature  of  this  observation  is  that  the  subject  did 
not  see  these  distinctive  marks,  or,  rather,  it  did  not  occur 
to  her  what  they  really  were,  since  she  must  have  seen 
them  in  order  to  project  her  hallucination.  She  failed 
to  see,  however,  that  their  combination  formed  a  view  in 
the  Pyrenees.  The  effort  to  convince  the  subject  of  her 
error  was  fruitless  ;  she  only  saw  her  own  portrait. 

There  is  another  remark  to  make  on  Londe's  obser- 
vation. This  hallucination  of  the  portrait  existed  in  the 
case  of  all  the  proofs  of  the  same  photograph.  It  was 
first  produced  by  the  plate  and  then  transferred  to  the 
copies  printed  off  from  it ;  the  imaginary  portraits  equalled 
in  number  the  printed  copies.      This  multiplication  of 


HALLUCINATIONS.  241 

the  hallucination  by  the  multiplication  of  the  distinctive 
marks  somewhat  resembles  the  phenomenon  of  the  reflec- 
tion in  the  mirror ;  at  any  rate,  it  clearly  proves  with 
what  force  the  fictitious  image  was  associated  with  the 
sight  of  the  photograph,  since  the  presentation  of  a  new, 
but  entirely  similar  copy  was  apt  to  suggest  the  same 
hallucination. 

We  repeat  that  if  the  hallucination  of  a  portrait  is 
created  on  a  real  photograph,  the  subject  will  discover 
the  same  portrait  on  a  second  copy  of  the  photograph 
without  the  intervention  of  any  fresh  suggestion.  This, 
which  was  at  first  an  isolated  experiment,  led  us  to 
invent  another  which  is  logically  derived  from  it.  A 
blank  card  on  which  suggestion  had  fixed  an  imaginary 
portrait  was  photographed,  and  when  we  presented  this 
photograph  of  the  blank  card  to  the  subject,  she  instantly 
recognized  the  imaginary  portrait.  But  it  is  evident 
that  experiments  of  this  kind  are  too  delicate  to  be 
invariably  successful.  Just  as  experiments  in  physics 
sometimes  miss  fire,  so  it  is  with  experiments  in  cerebral 
physiology.  The  one  which  succeeded  had,  however,  a 
great  demonstrative  value,  since  it  was  the  first.  We 
made  a  second  attempt,  which  completely  failed,  and  we 
have  made  no  further  attempts. 

This  same  theory  of  distinctive  marks  may  explain 
some  other  points.  It  leads  us  to  understand  why 
hypnotic  hallucination  persists  in  many  cases  after  the 
subject  awakes,  while  the  memory  of  what  occurred 
during  sleep  is  completely  effaced,  at  least  unless  certain 
expedients  are  used  to  revive  it.  The  contrast  is  striking. 
The  subject  is  ordered  to  commit  a  murder,  and  on 
awaking,  he  neither  remembers  the  order  he  has  received, 


242  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

nor  the  act  he  is  supposed  to  have  performed.  Yet  if 
the  hallucination  of  a  bird  has  been  given,  it  will  be 
almost  as  vivid  after  awaking  as  it  was  during  somnam- 
bulism, and  for  this  we  may  ask  the  reason,  since  if  the 
hallucination  is  an  image,  so  also  is  memory.  This 
is  true,  but  the  hallucination  is  an  image  with  the 
addition  of  some  external,  distinctive  mark,  and  this 
distinctive  mark,  which  is  still  present,  recalls  the 
hallucinatory  image  by  means  of  the  association  of  ideas, 
like  a  knot  tied  in  a  pocket-handkerchief. 

The  existence  of  this  distinctive  mark  establishes  a 
natural  transition  between  the  hallucination  and  the  illu- 
sion of  hypnotism.  The  two  phenomena  are  both  pro- 
duced by  verbal  suggestion  ;  the  only  difference  between 
them  is  that  there  is  a  substratum  for  the  illusion  which 
is  wanting  in  the  hallucination  ;  in  the  case  of  every 
illusion  there  is  a  real  object  which  is  more  or  less 
transformed  by  the  suggestion.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  this  is  not  an  essential  difference,  since  suggestion 
may  transform  the  object  in  a  thousand  ways.  A  book 
may  become  a  hat,  a  dog,  or  a  person,  and  precisely  the 
same  appearances  may  be  created  without  the  aid  of  any 
object.  For  those  who  accept  the  theory  of  distinctive 
marks  this  difference  between  hallucination  and  illusion 
is  completely  effaced,  and  hypnotic  illusion  appears  to 
be  an  hallucination  for  which  the  special  suggestion  has 
selected  a  distinctive  mark  which  happens  to  be  a  real 
object.  Hence  some  interesting  consequences  ensue ;  the 
hypnotic  illusion  is  modified,  just  as  an  hallucination  is 
modified  in  accordance  with  the  real  object  to  which  it 
is  applied. 

We  have  seen  that  in  the  case  of  hallucination  these 


HALLUCINATIONS.  243 

modifications  consist  in  phenomena  of  deviation,  duplica- 
tion, etc.,  produced  by  optical  instruments.  In  the  case 
of  illusion,  since  the  distinctive  mark  is  not  a  mark,  but 
a  real  object,  and  often  a  person,  it  may  be  spontaneously 
modified,  and  this  adds  a  fresh  complication  to  the 
experiment.  A  gentleman  named  X was  trans- 
formed by  suggestion  into  a  dog.     The  subject  no  longer 

saw  X ,  who  ceased  to  exist  for  her,  but  she  ascribed 

all  his  gestures  and  movements  to  the  dog  which  had 
been  sugorested  to  her.  Hence  it  followed  that  the 
illusion  had  not  the  fixed  character  habitual  in  halluci- 
nation, but  constantly  varied,  and  all  the  changes  which 

took  place  in  X reacted  on   the  illusion.     On  one 

occasion  we  pointed  out  X to  one  of  our  subjects, 

saying,  "  Do  you  see  that  person  ?  She  is  a  nurse, 
carrying  an  infant."  The  hallucination  persisted  on 
awaking,  and  the  subject  looked  at  the  nurse  and  child 
with  feminine  curiosity.    Strangely  enough,  she  watched 

X 's  gestures,  and  ascribed   them   to   the  nurse,  so 

that  the  real  and  the  imaginary  were  closely  inter- 
mingled.     When    X raised    his    hands,    she    said 

angrily,  "  Wretched  woman,  is  that  the  way  to  carry 
an  infant  ?     Do  you  wish  to  kill  it  ? " 

Hypnotic  illusion  leads  us  by  a  logical  transition  to 
the  ordinary  and  physiological  illusion  of  the  senses, 
which  occurs  in  so  many  different  circumstances,  and 
of  which  every  one  has  had  experience.  The  cause  of 
these  two  illusions  is  not  the  same,  since  hypnotic 
illusion  is  produced  by  verbal  suggestion,  that  is,  from 
within,  and  the  illusion  of  common  life  is  generally 
produced  by  the  imperfect  perception  of  external  objects, 
that  is,  from  without.     Yet   it  cannot   be   doubted,  in 


244  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

y 

spite  of  this  difference  in  the  formative  process,  that 
every  kind  of  illusion  is  formed  by  the  synthesis 
of  two  elements — the  external  element  and  the  false 
image  constructed  by  the  mind  and  projected  on  the 
object.  We  may  add  the  ordinary  illusion  may,  like  the 
other,  be  magnified  by  a  lens,  reflected  by  a  mirror,  etc., 
as  some  of  our  observations  prove.  In  this  case  these 
optical  modifications  seem  to  be  quite  natural,  since  the 
false  image  is  associated  with  an  external  object.  It  is, 
however,  an  interesting  fact  that  a  common  law  domi- 
nates the  whole  series  of  phenomena,  hallucination, 
hypnotic  illusion,  and  normal  illusion. 

Nor  does  the  series  end  here.  The  normal  illusion 
of  the  senses  is  directly  connected  with  the  external 
perception,  that  is,  with  the  normal  act  by  which  we 
enter  into  relations  with  external  and  present  objects. 
External  perception  is  termed  by  Taine  a  true  halluci- 
nation. Certainly  this  act  is,  like  illusion,  a  synthesis 
of  external  sensations  with  internal  images.  The  study 
of  the  mechanism  of  perception  by  one  of  the  present 
writers  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  it  presents  on  a 
small  scale  the  phenomena  which  occur  on  a  large 
scale  in  hypnotic  hallucination — deviation,  duplication, 
and  enlargement  of  the  mental  images.  Hallucination 
must,  therefore,  be  a  disease  of  external  perception.* 

The  theory  of  distinctive  marks  may  be  extended  to 
hallucinations  which  are  given  for  some  remote  period ; 
a  sinorular  fact  which  conflicts  with  our  scientific  ex- 
perience,   so    that    doubt    has    been    thrown    upon   it. 

*  Binet  (La  psycJiologie  du  raisonnement.  Paris,  1886)  has  set  forth  the 
principal  psychological  conclusions  derived  from  these  phenomena  of 
hallucination. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  245 

Bernlieim*  said  to  S ,  formerly  a  sergeant,  when  he 

was  in  a  state  of  somnambulism,  "  On  what  day  will  you 
be  at  liberty  during  the  first  week  of  the  month  of 
October  ? "  He  replied,  "  On  Wednesday."  "Then,  listen 
to  me.  Go  to  Dr.  Liebault  on  the  first  Wednesday  in 
October,  and  you  will  see  the  President  of  the  Republic, 
who  will  give  you  a  medal  and  a  pension."  He  said  that 
he  would  go,  but  remembered  nothing  of  it  when  he 
awoke.     On  the  3rd  of  October,  however,  sixty-three 

days  after  the  suggestion,  S presented  himself  at  Dr. 

Li^bault's,  at  ten  minutes  to  eleven.    On  entering  he  met 

and  saluted  F ,  and  then,  without  paying  attention 

to  any  one,  he  went  to  the  left  side  of  the  library,  made 
a  respectful  salute,  and  uttered  the  words,  "Your  Ex- 
cellency." As  he  spoke  rather  low,  Dr.  Liebault  went 
up  to  him,  and  at  that  moment  he  extended  his  right 
hand,  saying,  "  I  thank  your  Excellency."  Liebault 
asked  to  whom  he  was  speaking,  and  he  replied,  "  To  the 
President  of  the  Republic." 

Beaunis  informed  the  Sociele  cle  psychologie  physio- 
logique  (April,  1885)  of  another  instance  of  post-hypnotic 
hallucination,  which  was  realized  six  months  after  the 
suggestion.  On  the  14th  of  July,  1884,  he  told  a  hypno- 
tized young  woman  that  she  would  see  him  enter  her 
room  on  the  following  1st  of  January,  and  wish  her 
a  happy  new  year.  And  so,  in  fact,  it  was.  On  New 
Year's  Day  the  young  woman  saw  Beaunis  (who  was  in 
realit}^  in  Paris)  enter  her  room,  wish  her  a  happy  new 
year,  and  disappear.  Suggestions  of  dreams  which  would 
occur  on  some  subsequent  night  have  also  been  given. 
Our  observations  lead  us  to  believe  that  hallucinations 

*  De  la  Suggestion.    Paris,  1884. 


246  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

given  for  some  remote  period  really  take  effect.  The 
length  of.  the  intervening  period  is  less  surprising  than 
the  fact  that  they  are  realized  at  the  fixed  hour. 

It  may  be  asked  whether  hypnotic  subjects  possess 
an  abstract  power  of  measuring  time.  We  think  it  more 
probable  that  the  occurrence  of  the  hallucination  at  the 
moment  assigned  beforehand  is  produced  by  some  ex- 
ternal circumstance,  and  that  if  this  circumstance,  which 
acts  as  a  stimulus,  is  removed,  the  latent  existence  of 
the  hallucination  may  be  indefinitely  prolonged.  It 
must  be  observed  that  in  the  experiments  by  Bernheim 
and  Beaunis  the  day  fixed  for  its  fulfilment  bore  a  dis- 
tinctive mark.  In  the  one  case  it  was  the  first  Wednes- 
day of  October,  in  the  other  the  1st  of  January.  These 
dates  perhaps  served  as  the  subject's  distinctive  mark; 
it  was  as  if  he  had  been  told  that  the  hallucination 
would  occur  when  the  experimenter  clapped  his  hands, 
and  the  advent  of  the  moment  which  had  been  named 
served  as  a  kind  of  signal.  This  explanation  must,  how- 
ever, be  regarded  as  provisional,  and  the  question,  like 
so  many  others,  remains  open. 

III. 

We  next  propose  to  describe  a  series  of  hypnotic 
experiments  which  seem  to  throw  some  light  on  the 
still  obscure  problem  of  the  physiology  of  hallucinations. 
In  fact,  the  new  phenomena  with  which  we  are  about  to 
acquaint  our  readers  appear  to  show  that  hallucination 
is  produced  by  an  excitement  of  the  sensory  centres. 
If  the  conclusion  is  not  new,  it  is,  at  any  rate,  interesting, 
and  although  it  has  often  been  set  forth  by  physicians  of 


HALLUCINATIONS.  247 

the  insane,  no  complete  proof  of  the  hypothesis  has 
hitherto  been  given.  Such  a  proof  is  furnished  by  the 
careful  study  of  hypnotic  phenomena. 

We  must,  however,  hasten  to  add  that  we  are  less 
anxious  to  develop  a  theory  than  to  register  a  certain 
number  of  facts  which  are  interesting  in  themselves 
inasmuch  as  they  are  facts.  The  conclusions  which  we 
draw  from  them  with  respect  to  the  physiology  of  hallu- 
cinations are  merely  the  bond  which  serves  to  connect 
very  varied  observations,  and  it  is  these  alone  which  have 
any  value.  The  regular  observation  of  any  phenomenon 
remains  as  a  definite  acquisition  to  science,  whatever  after- 
wards ensues,  while  the  future  of  theories  is  uncertain. 

1.  Achromatopsia. — We  will  first  consider  achro- 
matopsy, or  colour-blindness.  Paul  Richer,  in  his  Etudes 
cliniques  sur  Vkystero-epilepsie,  was  the  first  to  show 
that  in  the  case  of  most  hysterical  subjects  it  is  im- 
possible for  their  vision  to  accept  hallucinations  of 
colour.  Since  the  eye  has  lost  its  chromatic  sensitive- 
ness, it  cannot  see  the  colours  of  an  imaginary  object. 

As  one  of  the  present  writers  has  shown,  the  same 
rule  seems  to  apply  to  the  spontaneous  hallucinations  of 
insanity.  We  observed  in  the  St.  Anne  asylum,  of 
which  Dr.  Magnan  is  in  charge,  an  insane,  hysterical 
patient  who  was  constantly  haunted  by  the  image  of  a 
man  dressed  in  red.  The  left  side  of  this  woman's 
body  was  afiected  by  anaesthesia  and  achromatopsia,  and 
when  her  right  eye  was  closed,  she  continued  to  see  the 
hallucination  with  her  left  eye,  but  instead  of  being 
dressed  in  red,  the  man  appeared  to  be  in  grey,  and 
enveloped  in  mist.* 

*  Binet,  L' Hallucination  (Bevue  PMlosopTiique,  April,  1884), 


248  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

Since  the  fact  is  proved,  it  lias  still  to  be  explained. 
It  may  be  considered  strange  that  a  somnambulist  sub- 
ject is  capable  of  receiving  all  sorts  of  hallucinations, 
however  absurd  they  may  be ;  that  in  the  course  of  a 
few  minutes  she  may  be  surprised  by  the  appearance 
of  a  ball,  a  public  fete,  the  overturning  of  a  carriage, 
a  tumultuous  crowd,  an  insurrection,  a  conflict  before 
barricades,  succeeded  by  a  quiet,  moonlit  night,  reveal- 
ing the  bodies  of  the  dead.  The  patient  who  sees  all 
this  may  laugh,  weep,  be  amazed,  or  utter  cries  of  terror, 
in  correspondence  with  the  scenes  unrolled  before  her; 
but  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  display  some  coloured 
object  to  her,  the  experimenter's  power  is  suddenly 
arrested,  and  the  automaton,  who  is  so  docile  in  all  other 
respects,  obstinately  asserts  that  she  does  not  see  the 
colours  suggested  to  her.  For  instance,  if  the  eye  which 
remains  open  has  lost  the  perception  of  violet,  it  is 
impossible  for  that  colour  to  enter  into  any  of  her 
hallucinations,  unless  the  other  eye,  which  retains  the 
sense  of  that  colour,  is  opened.  This  is  a  striking  fact, 
but  it  will  cease  to  appear  absurd  when  we  bestow  upon 
it  sufficient  reflection.  It  can  be  satisfactorily  explained 
when  we  consider  the  seat  of  achromatopsia,  and  the 
probable  seat  of  the  hallucination. 

It  is  now  almost  certain  that  hysterical  achromatopsia 
results  from  a  functional  disturbance  of  the  cerebral 
cortex,  and  not  from  any  lesion  of  the  retina,  or  of  the 
media  of  visual  perception.  All  that  we  know  of  the 
nervous  disturbances  of  hysteria  leads  us  to  believe 
that  they  do  not  involve  these  media,  and  that  we 
must  regard  achromatopsia  as  a  functional  disturbance 
of  the  cortical  ceUs  concerned  with  the  perception  of 


HALLUCINATIONS.  249 

colour.  This  belief  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  if 
this  functional  disturbance  is  the  same  hindrance  to 
the  hallucination  as  to  the  perception  of  a  given  colour, 
it  is  probably  because  these  two  phenomena,  perception 
and  hallucination,  employ  the  same  class  of  nervous  ele- 
ments. In  other  words,  hallucination  occurs  in  the  centres 
in  which  the  impressions  of  the  senses  are  received,  and 
it  results  from  an  excitement  of  the  sensory  centres. 

It  may  be  objected  that  in  the  case  of  some  hypno- 
tized subjects  achromatopsia  is  no  hindrance  to  the  sug- 
gestion of  coloured  hallucinations,  but  we  find  it  easy 
to  explain  this  deviation  from  the  rule.  The  achroma- 
topsy of  hysterical  subjects  depends  on  hemi-anaesthesia, 
and  there  is  nothing  definite  in  this  lesion.  It  is  not 
so  much  a  paralysis  as  a  paresia,  a  slothfulness  of  the 
nervous  elements.  These  elements  no  longer  respond 
to  the  call  of  their  normal  excitant,  the  coloured  ray, 
yet  it  is  not  surprising  that  they  should  react  when 
approached  from  a  different  direction,  by  an  excitement 
which  proceeds  from  the  auditory  centres,  and  which 
is  merely  verbal  suggestion. 

2.  The  'phenomena  of  contrast. — There  is  another 
fact  which  shows,  still  more  clearly  than  the  one  just 
given,  that  hallucination  and  sensation  have  the  same 
seat  in  the  brain,  namely,  the  property  with  which 
the  hallucinatorj^  image  is  endowed  of  producing  the 
same  effects  of  contrast  as  those  produced  by  sensation. 
Parinaud,  the  head  of  the  ophthalmological  laboratory 
of  nervous  diseases  at  the  Salpetriere,  has  been  good 
enough  to  send  us  the  following  paper,  relating  to 
hitherto  unpublished  experiments,  which  are  of  an 
extremely  interesting  character ; — 


250  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

"Hallucinations  of  colour  may  develop  phenomena  of 
chromatic  contrast  as  readily  as,  and  with  even 
greater  intensity,  than  the  actual  perception  of  colour. 

"  If,  for  instance,  a  piece  of  paper  divided  by  a  line 
is  presented  to  a  hypnotized  subject,  and  it  is  suggested 
to  her  that  one  half  is  red,  the  sensation  of  the  com- 
plementary colour,  green,  occurs  on  the  other  half.  If, 
after  awaking,  the  sensation  of  red  remains,  so  also  does 
the  sensation  of  green. 

"  In  order  to  understand  the  meaning  of  this  fact, 
I  must  refer  to  the  following  experiment,  relating  to 
chromatic  contrast,  which  I  communicated  to  the  Societe 
de  Biologic  in  July,  1882. 

"A-  card  which  is  half  white  and  half  green  on 
one  side,  and  wholly  white  on  the  other,  is  marked  in 
the  centre  on  both  sides  with  a  spot  intended  to  fix  the 
vision.  For  half  a  minute  the  eyes  are  fixed  on  the 
parti-coloured  side,  and  then  the  card  is  turned  and 
the  eyes  are  fixed  on  the  central  spot  of  the  white  side. 
On  the  half  which  corresponds  to  the  green  half  a  red 
tint  appears,  which  is  merely  the  definitive  after-image, 
and  on  the  other  half  the  complementary  green  tint  is 
seen.  The  after-image  of  red  has,  therefore,  developed 
by  induction  the  sensation  of  green  in  the  part  of  the 
retina  which  had  only  received  the  impression  of 
white.  This  experiment,  which  may  be  varied  in 
different  ways,  so  as  to  establish  the  fact  that  we 
have  to  do  with  positive  sensations,  and  not  with 
any  error  of  judgment,  shows  that  every  impression 
of  colour  leads  to  a  more  or  less  persistent  modification 
of  the  nervous  elements  which  produce  the  after-image 


HALLUCINATIONS.  251 

and  that  this  modification  causes,  in  the  parts  not 
affected,  a  modification  in  the  opposite  direction  which 
develops  the  complementary  sensation,  by  a  phenome- 
non analogous  to  that  which  occurs  in  a  magnetized 
body. 

"  The  image  of  hallucination  acts  like  the  after-image, 
and  may  likewise  cause  an  induced  sensation,  so  that  it 
corresponds  with  a  material  modification  of  the  nervous 
centres. 

"  In  order  that  the  experiment  should  succeed,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  subject  should  retain  the  perception 
of  the  suggested  colour,  for  we  know  that  the  per- 
ception of  colours  is  frequently  affected  by  hysterical 
amblyopia.  If  there  is  any  blindness  with  respect  to 
this  colour,  the  suofaested  sensation  is  confused,  and  the 
induced  sensation  does  not  occur.  When  the  subject  is 
able  to  distinguish  all  the  colours  in  the  waking  state, 
she  can  also  distinguish  their  complementary  colours. 
When  only  unable  to  distinguish  certain  colours,  which 
is  often  the  case,  a  singular  result  follows.  Suppose  that 
the  subject  sees  red,  and  cannot  see  green,  the  hallucina- 
tion of  green  cannot  develop  the  induced  sensation  of  red; 
yet  the  hallucination  of  red,  which  she  sees,  may  develop 
the  induced  sensation  of  green,  which  she  cannot  see." 

It  clearly  appears  from  these  experiments  that  from 
the  point  of  view  of  simultaneous  contrast,  the  halluci- 
natory image  acts  precisely  as  a  real  sensation  would  do, 
whence  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  two  phenomena 
effect  the  vibration  of  the  same  keys  of  the  cerebral 
instrument.  They  are,  however,  distinguished  by  the 
following  difference.  When  a  real  sensation  of  colour  is 
exi)erienced,  the  sensation  results  from  an  excitement  of 


252  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

the  retina,  and  it  reaches  the  centre  of  visual  sensation  by 
the  paths  of  vision,  by  the  optic  nerve,  the  chiasma,  the 
optic  tracts,  etc.  The  sensation  of  colour  suggested  by 
words,  that  is,  the  hallucinatory  image,  results  from  the 
excitement  of  the  organ  of  hearing,  and  it  is  reflected  in 
the  centre  of  auditory  sensation  before  it  reaches  the 
centre  of  vision.  With  the  exception,  however,  of  this 
diflference  in  the  process  of  excitement,  we  repeat  that 
the  hallucination  and  the  real  sensation  appear  to  cor- 
respond with  the  same  physiological  process,  since  other- 
wise the  same  effects  of  chromatic  contrast  would  not 
occur  in  both  cases. 

3.  Subjective  Sensations. — Parinaud's  researches  into 
the  simultaneous  contrast  naturally  led  to  the  inquiry 
whether  hallucinations  produce  subjective  sensations, 
since  these  two  orders  of  phenomena  are  closely  allied. 

Let  it  be  remembered,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  that 
the  term  of  objective  sensations  is  given  to  the  perception 
of  images  which  follows  the  impression  on  the  sight  of  a 
luminous  or  bright  object.  The  image  which  ensues  is 
positive  or  negative,  according  to  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  seen.  In  the  positive  image  we  have  the 
representation  of  the  object  as  it  really  is  ;  its  colour  and 
the  relatively  luminous  intensity  of  its  parts  are  main- 
tained. Conversely,  in  the  negative  image  the  light 
parts  of  the  object  appear  to  be  dark,  and  the  dark  parts 
to  be  light ;  and  its  general  colour  is  exchanged  for  the 
complementary  colour. 

The  production  of  after-images  is  a  normal  phe- 
nomenon which  constantly,  but  with  varying  intensity, 
accompanies  the  exercise  of  external  vision.  We 
have  ascertained  that  hallucinatory  vision  is  subject  to 


HALLUCINATIONS.  253 

the  same  conditions;  every  hallucination  of  some  per- 
sistence is  succeeded,  on  its  disappearance,  by  an  after- 
image, just  as  in  the  case  of  ordinary  sensations  which 
affect  the  retina.* 

This  phenomenon  was  first  observed,  several  years 
ago,  by  the  physiologist  Gruithuisen.  Observing  what 
occurred  in  his  dreams,  he  states  that  "sometimes  a 
bright,  fantastic  image  was  succeeded  by  one  of  the  same 
form,  but  indistinct.  Sometimes,  again,  after  dreaming 
of  violet  fluor  spar,  or  burning  coals,  he  perceived  a 
yellow  patch  on  a  blue  ground."  f 

We  had  occasion  to  verify  the  exactness  of  this 
observation  in  our  treatment  of  hypnotic  patients.  The 
somnambulist  subject  was  requested  to  look  attentively 
at  a  square  of  white  paper,  with  a  black  spot  in  the  centre, 
designed  to  fix  her  vision.  At  the  same  time  the  sugges- 
tion was  made  that  the  paper  was  of  a  red  or  green 
colour.  A  second  square  of  paper,  likewise  marked  in 
the  centre  with  a  black  spot,  was  then  produced,  and  as 
soon  as  the  subject  had  fixed  her  eyes  on  the  spot,  she 
exclaimed  that  the  spot  was  surrounded  by  a  coloured 
square,  and  the  colour  indicated  was  complementary  to 
that  which  had  been  made  to  appear  by  means  of  sugges- 
tion. This  complementary  colour  is  the  negative  image 
left  by  the  hallucinatory  colour;  it  lasts  but  a  short 
while,  it  is  effaced,  is  lost,  or  dies,  as  the  subject  says, 
and  it  resembles  in  all  respects  a  normal,  negative  image. 

This  experiment  was  repeated  by  Charcot  before  a 
numerous  assembly,  during  one  of  his  lectures  on  aphasia. 

*  This  experiment  was  performed  for  tlie  first  time  by  Richer  and  the 
present  writers  in  June,  1884. 

t  Quoted  by  Burdach,  in  his  Traits  de  physiologie,  vol.  v.  p.  206. 
12 


254  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

That  eminent  professor  demonstrated  that,  in  order  to 
ensure  success,  care  must  be  taken  to  define  the  nature  of 
the  suggested  colour.  For  instance,  if  only  the  colour 
7'ed  is  suggested,  the  subject  may  either  see  the  shade  of 
red,  of  which  green  is  the  complementary  colour,  or  the 
orange-red,  of  which  blue  is  complementary.  These  con- 
tradictory results  are  impossible  when  the  colour  which 
the  subject  is  intended  to  see  is  made  clear  by  a  com- 
parison. It  may  be  remarked  in  passing,  that  this 
experiment  is  a  peremptory  reply  to  those  who  still 
believe  in  the  existence  of  a  general  simulation.  It 
would  be  unreasonable  to  maintain  that  an  hysterical 
woman,  who  scarcely  knows  how  to  read  or  write,  has 
the  theory  of  complementary  colours  at  her  fingers'  ends. 
Our  subjects  have  always  answered  correctly,  and,  which 
is  more  important,  the  correct  answer  has  been  given 
when  the  experiment  was  performed  for  the  first  time.* 

It  must  be  remembered  that  analogous  phenomena 
occur  in  the  mental  vision  of  normal  individuals.  The 
persistent  idea  of  a  brilliant  colour  develops  an  after- 
image of  the  complementary  colour,  just  as  a  real  sensa- 
tion does.f  If  we  close  our  eyes  and  fix  our  minds  for  a 
long  while  on  an  image  of  some  vivid  colour,  and  then 
open  our  eyes  to  look  at  a  white  surface,  we  shall,  for  a 
brief  space,  see  the  object  of  our  imagination,  but  of  the 
complementary  colour.  One  of  the  present  writers 
successfully  repeated  this  experiment,  which  is  difficult 
and  demands  from  the  subject  a  great  power  of  visualiza- 

*  An  interesting  fact  was  displayed  in  the  case  of  one  of  our  subjects. 
She  had  lost  the  perception  of  violet  in  both  eyes ;  violet  looked  like  l)lack. 
When  tlie  hallucination  of  yellow  was  given,  the  after-image  was  black, 
instead  of  violet,  the  complementary  of  yellow, 

t  Wundt,  quoted  by  liibot,  Maladies  de  la  memoirey  p.  11. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  255 

tion.  He  was  able  to  picture  to.  himself  the  idea  of  red, 
so  intensely  that  at  the  end  of  a  few  minutes  he  was 
able  to  see  a  green  patch  upon  the  white  paper ;  but, 
strangely  enough,  repeated  efforts  were  required  before 
he  was  able  to  associate  an  outline  with  the  colour,  so  as 
to  reproduce  under  the  form  of  a  subjective  image  the 
idea  of  a  coloured  cross  or  circle. 

These  facts  show  the  close  connection  which  unites 
sensation,  hallucination,  and  memory.  These  three  phe- 
nomena are  evidently  based  on  the  same  physiological 
operation,  and  are  effected  in  the  same  region  of  the 
nervous  centres.  Thus,  whether  it  is  a  real  impression 
of  the  colour  red,  whether  the  colour  is  pictured  by  the 
memory,  or  again,  whether  it  is  seen  by  an  hallucination, 
it  is  always  the  same  cell  which  vibrates. 

4.  The  Mixture  of  Iviaginart/  Colours. — Since  it  is 
interesting  to  develop  an  experiment,  so  as  to  consider  a 
fact  in  every  aspect,  we  sought  to  discover  what  would 
result  from  the  mixture  of  imaginary  colours.  We  wished 
to  know  whether  an  hypnotic  subject  could  make  white 
out  of  the  suggested  colours  of  combined  red  and  green. 
The  process  which,  after  many  attempts,  we  found  to  be 
the  most  convenient,  does  not  involve  much  preparation. 
Two  squares  of  coloured  cardboard  are  placed  on  a  table 
at  a  little  distance  from  each  other,  and  a  piece  of  glass  is 
held  before  the  eye  at  such  an  angle  as  to  admit  a  direct 
view  of  one  of  the  squares,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
reflected  image  of  the  second  square ;  in  this  way  it  is 
easy  to  place  one  image  over  the  other,  and  thus  to  mix 
their  colours.  The  result  may  be  varied  in  manifold 
ways  by  employing  differently  coloured  squares.  After 
this  arrangement  is  made,  a  series  of  blank  cards  are 


256  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

shown  to  the  subject,  and  it  is  suggested  to  him  that 
they  are  coloured.  Care  is  taken  each  time  to  define  the 
suggested  colour  by  showing  to  the  subject,  by  way  of 
pattern,  one  of  the  coloured  cards  which  were  used  for 
the  previous  experiment.  In  this  way  the  imaginary 
colours  of  the  white  cards  are  absolutely  the  same  as  the 
real  colours  on  the  other  cards. 

The  subject  may  then,  with  a  piece  of  glass  and  his 
collection  of  cards  coloured  by  suggestion,  effect  the  same 
mixture  of  colours  as  the  experimenter,  who  can  on  each 
occasion  verify  the  exactitude  of  the  result  by  the  com- 
bination of  the  real  colours.  Under  these  rigorous 
conditions,  which  leave  no  scope  for  erroneous  sugges- 
tions, the  imaginary  colours  give  the  resultant  shades 
which  are  in  conformity  with  optical  laws.  Hence  we 
may  conclude  that  the  hallucination  of  a  colour  is  a 
suggested  sensation  which  occupies  the  same  region  of 
the  cerebrum  as  a  real  sensation. 

5.  Phenomena  observed  with  reference  to  the  Eye. — 
We  now  come  to  a  consecutive  series  of  clinical  observa- 
tions and  of  experiments  which  furnish  a  valuable  argu- 
ment in  proof  of  our  thesis,  and  which  are  perhaps  the 
most  decisive  of  all. 

When  a  lesion  of  the  brain  produces  sensory  dis- 
turbances in  the  integuments  of  the  eye,  visual  disturb- 
ances also  occur,  such  as  achromatopsia,  or  concentric  or 
lateral  contraction  of  the  field  of  vision.  This  has  been 
shown  by  numerous  observations.*  This  singular  rela- 
tion between  the  general  sensitiveness  of  the  eye  and  its 

♦  F6r^,  Des  troubles  fonctionneh  de  la  vision  par  l€dons  c^rehraleSy 
pp.  152,  153  (^1882);  Notes  sur  Vanesth^de  hyfit^nqut  (Soc.  de  Biologie, 
October  29  and  November  26,  18«1 ;  July  24,  1886;. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  257 

special  sensitiveness  is  particularly  apparent  in  the 
hemi-ana^sthesia  of  hysterical  patients.  In  fact,  in  these 
casss,  the  insensibility  of  one-half  of  the  body  not  only 
extends  to  the  skin  and  mucous  membrane,  but  also  to 
the  otli3r  organs  of  the  senses:  sight,  smell,  and  hearing 
are  likewise  affected  on  the  same  side ;  in  a  word,  there 
is,  as  a  rule,  a  sensitivo-sensorial  hemi-angesthesia.  Under 
these  conditions  the  general  sensitiveness  of  the  eye, 
the  sensitiveness  of  the  conjunctiva  and  of  the  cornea, 
is  always  in  correspondence  with  the  special  sensitive- 
ness of  that  organ.  Thus  the  hemi-ansesthetic  hysterical 
patients  whom  we  have  observed,  and  in  whom  there 
was  neither  contraction  of  the  field  of  vision,  nor  achro- 
matopsia, retained  the  sensitiveness  of  the  conjunctiva. 
Those  who  had  lost  the  power  of  seeing  one  or  more 
colours,  or  whose  field  of  vision  was  more  or  less  re- 
latively contracted,  did  not  only  experience  anaesthesia 
of  the  conjunctiva,  but  also  of  the  cornea.  In  this 
latter  case,  if  while  the  subject  is  looking  intently  at 
any  object,  the  conjunctiva  and  the  cornea  are  touched 
by  a  strip  of  paper,  the  eye  and  eyelids  do  not  move  as 
long  as  the  foreign  substance  does  not  come  in  front  of 
the  pupil.  The  reflex  movement  of  the  eye  and  eyelid 
which  occurs  in  the  latter  case  is  exclusively  produced 
by  the  excitement  of  the  retina,  which  has  lost  the  per- 
ception of  colour,  but  still  distinguishes  light  and  shade. 

In  those  who  are  simply  hemi-ansesthetic,  or  who  are 
totally  anaesthetic  with  a  predominance  on  one  side. 
magnetizatioL,  cscatical  electrization,  etc.,  will  effect  a 
transfer  of  the  anaesthesia,  so  as  to  furnish  a  counter- 
proof,  affording  constant  results. 

This  relation  between  cutaneous  and   sensorial  in- 


258  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

sensibility  does  not  only  exist  when  the  ana3sthesia 
extends  to  one-half  of  the  body,  but  when  it  is  more 
restricted.  When  statical  electrization  has  destroyed  the 
hysterical  anaesthesia,  after  an  interval  which  varies  in 
different  subjects,  insensibility  reappears  in  a  localized 
region,  which  does  not  correspond  with  the  distribution 
of  the  nerves.  In  the  case  of  one  of  our  patients,  in- 
sensibility first  returned  to  a  limited  zone  round  the  eye, 
which  included  the  cornea  and  the  conjunctiva,  and 
visual  anaesthesia  was  reproduced,  simultaneously  with 
the  limited  anaesthesia  of  the  skin.* 

Another  proof  of  the  relation  which  exists  between 
the  special  sensitiveness  of  the  eye,  and  the  sensitiveness 
of  the  conjunctiva,  may  be  found  in  the  observations 
we  made  on  three  hysterical  and  hypnotic  patients  at 
the  Salpetriere.  Two  phases  of  catalepsy  may  be  dis- 
tinguished, as  far  as  the  eye  is  concerned:  First,  in 
profound  catalepsy,  such  as  is  produced  by  a  sudden 
noise,  the  eyes  remain  fixed,  with  no  movement  of  the 
eyelids.  In  this  state  it  is  possible  to  touch  the  con- 
junctiva without  producing  any  reflex  action.  Secondly, 
when  an  object  is  moved  to  and  fro  before  the  subject's 
eyes,  so  as  to  fix  his  gaze  on  the  moving  object.  If  in 
this  case  the  conjunctiva  is  touched,  there  is  an  imme- 
diate reaction  of  the  eyelids,  as  in  a  healthy  subject, 
although  the  insensibility  of  the  rest  of  the  body  is 
maintained.  The  experiment  may  be  repeated  at  plea- 
sure by  again  throwing  the  subject  into  a  state  of 
profound  catalepsy,  and  the  result  is  always  the  same ; 

*  What  we  have  said  of  the  eye  applies  also  to  the  other  senses.  For 
further  details,  into  which  we  do  Dot  enter  here,  see  Fere's  work,  quoted 
above. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  259 

as  soon  as  the  fixed  gaze  ceases,  the  sensitiveness  of  the 
conjunctiva  returns.  The  object  which  is  moved  to  and 
fro  excites  the  special  sensitiveness  of  the  eye,  just  as 
under  other  circumstances  a  strong  local  excitement 
brings  back  the  sensitiveness  of  the  skin,  and  together 
with  the  function  of  sight  the  seusitiveness  of  the  external 
membrane  of  the  eye  returns. 

These  facts  appear  to  indicate  that  in  some  indeter- 
minate region  of  the  brain  there  are  sensory  centres 
common  to  the  organs  of  the  senses  and  to  the  integu- 
ments by  which  they  are  covered.* 

This  long  preamble  brings  us  to  the  observations  in 
which  we  are  more  immediately  interested,  which  regard 
the  physiology  of  hallucinations.  One  of  the  present 
writers  has  ascertained  that  when  a  cataleptic  subject 
receives  a  visual  hallucination,  the  general  sensitiveness 
of  the  eye  is  often  profoundly  modified.  We  have  just 
seen  that  in  the  cataleptic  state  the  conjunctiva  and  the 
cornea,  with  the  exception  of  the  region  of  the  pupil,  are 

generally  insensitive.     In  the  case  of  the  subject  P , 

as  soon  as  a  visual  hallucination  was  developed,  the 
sensitiveness  of  the  external  membranes  of  the  eye 
returned;  the  membranes  could  not  be  touched  by 
any  foreign  body  without  producing  reflex  action  of  the 
eyelids.f  An  hallucination  arouses  the  general  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  eye,  just  as  it  is  aroused  by  waving  a 
real  object  before  the  subject's  eyes.  This  is  surely  a 
proof  that  visual  hallucination  excites  the  visual  centres. 

A  second   experiment  displays  the  same  fact  under 

*  Fere,  Troubles  fonctionnels  de  la  vision,  pp.  149,  151,  158. 
t  Fere,    Les  hypnotiques    hynt^riques,    comme    xujeU    d^ experience    en 
m€dici'ne  mentale,  etc.  (^Arch.  de  Neurologia^  p.  122,  vol.  vi.  1883). 


260  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

another  form.     In  M 's  case  the  visual  hallucination 

usually  persisted  for  three  or  four  minutes  after  awaking. 
As  soon  as  this  subject  awoke,  she  complained  of  pain  in 
the  eyes  and  constantly  rubbed  them,  only  ceasing  to  do 
so  when  the  hallucination  disappeared.  We  saw  this 
behaviour  repeated  more  than  forty  times  without 
attaching  any  importance  to  it,  so  true  is  it  that  we  only 
see  what  we  expect  to  see.  And  yet  the  phenomenon  is 
curious ;  the  hypersesthesia,  or  rather  the  dyssesthesia,  of 
the  integuments  of  the  eye  is  produced  by  the  visual 
hallucination,  since  it  lasts  for  the  same  period  and  dis- 
appears at  the  same  time.  If  an  hallucination  brings  about 
this  modification  of  the  cutaneous  sensitiveness  of  the 
eye,  it  is  probable  that  it  excites  the  special  sensitive- 
ness of  that  organ,  in  other  words,  the  centre  of  vision.* 
We  observed  another  form  of  the  same  phenomenon 
in  the  subject  X .  We  suggested  to  her  the  halluci- 
nation of  a  bird  perched  on  her  finger,  suggesting  at  the 
same  time  that  she  only  saw  the  bird  with  her  right  eye. 
The  hallucination  persisted  after  awaking;  the  subject 
fondled  the  bird  without  being  aware  that  she  only  saw 
it  with  one  eye,  for  both  eyes  were  open,  nor  did  it 
occur  to  her  to  close  one  of  them.  After  a  while  she 
complained  of  pain  in  the  right  eye,  saying  that  she  felt 
as  if  sand  had  got  into  it,  and  she  only  put  her  hand  to 
this  eye.  It  should  be  observed  that  persons  affected  by 
conjunctivis  complain  of  the  same  sensation  of  sand  in 
the  eye.  The  localization  of  the  pain  in  the  right  eye 
proves  that  the  dyssesthesia  depended  on  the  halluci- 
nation. 

*  In  this  patient  an  hallucination  of  hearing  produced  local  pain  in 
tli^  8(,u4itory  meatus. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  261 

Each  of  these  facts,  taken  alone,  is  insignificant,  but 
they  are  in  logical  agreement  and  connection,  and  appear 
to  prove  that  visual  hallucination  has  its  seat  in  the 
visual  centre. 

After  studying  the  influence  of  hallucination  on  the 
organs  of  the  senses,  and  on  the  eye  in  particular,  we 
must  mention  the  observation  made  by  one  of  the  present 
writers*  on  the  state  of  the  pupil  in  subjects  of  hallu- 
cination. He  observed  in  the  first  place  that  in  the 
hallucinations  which  accompany  the  third  period  of  a 
strong  hysterical  attack,  the  diameter  of  the  pupil  varies 
with  the  assumed  distance  of  the  hallucinatory  object. 
This  interesting  fact  also  occurs  in  the  hallucinations 
produced  by  hypnotism :  "  This  was  what  we  observed 
in  the  case  of  two  hysterical  patients  with  whom  it  was 
possible  to  hold  oral  communication  during  catalepsy. 
When  we  desired  them  to  look  at  a  bird  perched  on  a 
steeple,  or  flying  high  in  the  air,  the  pupil  was  gradually 
dilated  until  its  normal  diameter  was  almost  doubled. 
When  we  caused  the  bird  to  fly  down,  the  pupil 
gradually  contracted,  and  the  same  phenomenon  was 
reproduced  as  often  as  the  idea  of  any  moving  object 
was  evoked. 

"The  modifications  of  the  pupil  produced  in  this 
manner  in  a  cataleptic  subject,  who  continued  to  display 
all  the  phenomena  peculiar  to  catalepsy,  show  that  the 
fictitious  object  of  hallucination  is  seen  just  as  if  it 
actually  existed,  and  its  supposed  movements  produces 
efforts  of  accommodation  which  are  governed  by  the  same 

*  Fere,  Note  on  some  phenomena  of  the  eye  observed  in  h  stero-epi- 
leptic  subjects,  either  during  the  attack  or  at  other  times,  in  the  Soci^te 
de  Biologie,  October,  November,  December,  1881. 


262  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

laws  as  if  it  were  a  real  object.  We,  therefore,  have  to 
do  with  a  true  hallucination,  and  not  with  any  im- 
posture." 

IV. 

We  have  now  to  observe  how  hallucination  is  affected 
by  sBsthesiogens. 

We  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  speak  of  aesthesio- 
genic  agents.  The  term  is  applied  to  certain  agents 
which,  according  to  Burq,  whose  observations  have  been 
confirmed  and  extended  by  other  scientific  men,  have 
the  property  of  acting  on  the  sensibility  and  motor  power 
of  a  certain  category  of  subjects.  The  magnet  is  the 
a^sthesiogen  to  which  we  have  most  frequently  had 
recourse.  There  is  nothing  mysterious  about  this  agent ; 
compared  by  physics  to  a  solenoid,  it  acts  like  a  faint 
electric  current  on  the  nervous  system,  and  produces  a 
continuous  peripheral  excitement.  Its  mode  of  action 
has,  moreover,  been  clearly  established  by  one  of  the 
present  writers.* 

We  need  not  in  this  place  prove  the  reality  of 
iBsthesiogenic  influence,  in  order  to  reply  to  those  who 
only  see  in  these  agents  the  effects  of  suggestion  and 
of  expectant  attention,  since  we  have  already  had 
occasion  to  explain  this  point.  It  only  remains  to  show 
that  in  the  following  experiments  we  took  sufficient 
care  to  eliminate  suggestion  and  expectant  attention. 
These  were  the  points  on  which  we  insisted :  1.  Since 
these  researches  were  new  to  us,  we  were  in  many  cases 
unable  to  foresee  what  would  occur,  and  especially  with 
respect  to  the  polarization  of  emotions,  so  that  suggestion 

*  Fere,  Bull  Society  de  Biologie,  p.  590, 1885. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  263 

on  our  part  was  impossible.  2.  We  repeated  the  experi- 
ments on  absolutely  fresh  subjects,  and  obtained  the 
same  results.  3.  The  same  effect  was  produced  when 
the  magnet  was  concealed  under  a  cloth.  4  This  was 
also  the  case  when  the  magnet  was  made  invisible  by 
suggestion.  5.  We  made  use  of  a  wooden  magnet,  and 
nothing  occurred,  although  if  there  had  been  any  results 
they  could  not  have  afforded  a  counter-proof,  since 
they  might  have  been  explained  by  the  recollection  of 
a  previous  peripheral  excitement.  6.  The  experiments 
made  under  somnambulism  were  in  loofical  connection 
with  those  made  under  lethargy  and  catalepsy,  although 
in  these  two  latter  states  we  have  found  our  subjects 
incapable  of  receiving  any  complex  suggestion.  We 
think  that  under  these  conditions  the  results  we  have 
obtained  must  be  considered  due  to  aesthesiogens,  and 
not  to  unconscious  suggestion. 

Many  observers  may  attempt  to  verify  our  experi- 
ments, and  if  they  fail  they  will  declare  them  to  be 
false,  or  to  have  been  produced  by  suggestion.  Let  them 
remember  Claude  Bernard's  remark,  that  for  the  most 
part  a  negative  experiment  only  proves  that  it  has  been 
imperfectly  understood.  It  is  clear  that  aesthesiogens 
only  act  on  a  certain  class  of  subjects  ;  this  was  admitted 
at  the  outset  by  all  observers  who  have  studied  this 
question.  Since  our  experiments  with  sesthesiogens  are 
only  the  logical  development  of  the  experiments  in 
metallo-therapeutics  made  by  Burq  and  his  successors, 
they  are  clearly  subject  to  the  same  conditions.  Our 
researches  will  not  be  invalidated  by  showing  that  they 
failed  with  the  first  subject  who  was  presented  to  them; 
such  an  argument  would  be  irrational.     We  do  not  dis- 


264  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

believe  the  phenomenon  of  neuro-muscular  hyper- 
excitability,  because  it  cannot  be  produced  in  a  healthy 
subject,  not  affected  by  hysteria.  Our  present  and  future 
opponents  are  recommended  to  perform  their  experiments 
exclusively  on  the  hysterical  patients  who  display  the 
features  of  profound  hypnotism,  and  in  those  whose 
sensitiveness  and  muscular  strength  are  modified  by  the 
application  of  magnetism. 

We  have  observed  that  in  the  case  of  some  subjects 
affected  by  profound  hypnotism,  unilateral  hallucination 
may  be  transferred  by  the  magnet,  like  a  contracture 
or  an  hysterical  paralysis.* 

Contrary  to  what  occurs  in  contractures,  the  trans- 
ferred hallucination  of  vision  is  not  symmetrical  with 
the  initial  hallucination.  It  is  suggested  to  the  subject 
that  he  sees  a  portrait  in  profile  on  a  card,  and  that  this 
profile  is  turned  to  the  right ;  it  is  added  that  he  only 
sees  this  profile  with  the  right  eye,  not  with  the  left. 
By  applying  a  magnet  the  hallucination  is  transferred 
from  the  right  to  the  left  eye;  if  the  subject  is  then 
asked  to  which  side  the  profile  is  turned,  he  says,  as 
before,  that  it  is  turned  to  the  right,  although  symmetry 
demands  that  it  should  be  turned  to  the  left. 

During  the  transfer,  the  subject  spontaneously  com- 
plains of  pain  in  the  head,  shooting  from  side  to  side. 
This  pain  is  not  diffused  but  local,  and  its  seat  is  note- 
worthy. The  cranio-cerebral  topography  established  by 
one  of  the  present  writers  -f*  enables  us  to  show  that  the 
point  where  pain  is  confidently  indicated  by  the  subject 

*  Binet  et  Fere,  Le  transfert  p  ychique  (Revue  Philosophique,  January, 
1885). 

t  Fere,  Anatomie  viedicale  du  systeme  nerveux,  p.  95.     Paris,  1886. 


HALLUCINATIONS 


266 


coincides,  in  the  case  of  certain  forms  of  hallucinations, 
with  the  sensory  centres  of  the  cerebral  cortex,  just 
as  they  have  been  established  by  the  physiological  and 
anatomical   researches  of  late   years  (Fig.   9).     This 


IS 


A- 


+  7  U 

Fig.  d.  —  Cranio-cerehral  typography. — B,  Bregma;  C,  Point  corresponding 
with  the  outer  extremity  of  the  coronal  suture;  L,  Lambda,  correspond- 
ing with  the  parieto-occipitiil  fissure ;  C  S,  Fissure  of  Sylvius ;  R  R'. 
Sulcus  of  Rolando;  R,  Its  anterior  extr(niity, about  three  centimeters 
behind  the  outer  extremity  of  the  coronal  suture;  R',  lis  posterior 
extremity,  forty-tivo  millimeters  behind  the  bregma;  A  A,  Condylo- 
alveolar  plane ;  B  O,  Aurifulo-bregmatic  plane  ;  G  L,  Plane  passing 
throuiih  the  minimum  frontal  transverse  diameter  and  the  lambda ; 
K  E,  Section  passing  r)etween  the  two  folds  of  the  third  frontal 
convolution  at  the  point  C,  which  corresponds  with  the  external 
extremity  of  the  coronal  suture,  and  just  touching  the  h(  ad  of  the 
caudate  nucleus  ;  R'  H,  Section  passing  through  the  posterior  extremity 
of  the  suh'us  of  Rr>land(),  and  behind  the  posterior  border  of  the  optic 
thalamus ;  N  M,  Horizontal  plane  passing  over  the  upper  surface  of  the 
corpus  callosum,  and  below  the  grey  nuclei. 


266  ANIMAL    MAGNETISM. 

especially  the  case  with  the  most  important  halluci- 
nations, those  of  sight  and  hearing.  Thus,  in  the  transfer 
of  an  hallucination  of  vision,  the  point  is  a  little  behind 
and  above  the  pinna  of  the  ear,  corresponding  with 
the  region  of  which  the  destruction  causes  blindness 
and  hemianopia;  it  is,  therefore,  the  posterior  part  of 
^  the  lower  parietal  lobule. 

In  the  transfer  of  an  hallucination  of  hearinor,  the 
pain  is  seated  in  the  centre  of  the  space  included  between 
the  anterior  part  of  the  pinna  of  the  ear  and  the  external, 
angular  process  of  the  frontal  bone.  The  pain  almost 
corresponds  with  the  centre  of  the  temporo-S[)henoidal 
lobe,  and  approximatively  with  the  region  of  which  the 
destruction  causes  deafness.  For  the  sense  of  taste,  the 
point  is  above  the  external  occipital  crest,  two  centimeters 
from  the  median  line.  For  the  sense  of  smell,  it  is  one 
centimeter  above  that  line.  These  two  latter  localizations 
are  not  in  agreement  with  the  results  of  anatomical  and 
clinical  researches,  and  demand  revision. 

It  may  be  asked  how  this  coincidence  should  be 
interpreted :  whether  it  proves  that  the  physiological 
process  in  correspondence  with  the  hallucination  is 
seated  in  the  sensory  centres  of  the  cerebral  cortex, 
behind  the  motor  zone;  or  if  we  are  only  to  regard  it  as 
one  of  the  reflex  acts,  termed  in  physiology,  an  echo  of 
pain.  We  cannot  decide  this  question,  since  it  is  only 
certain  that  in  the  case  of  some  subjects  there  is  a  special 
relation  between  some  points  of  the  external  covering  of 
the  head,  and  certain  nervous  centres  of  which  the  exact 
locality  is  still  undetined.  On  this  account  the  seat  of 
the  pain  of  transference  must  be  estimated  as  an 
objective  sign. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  267 

In  another  experiment  on  the  same  subjects,  we 
obtained  a  demonstration  of  the  same  relation  between 
certain  points  of  the  hairy  scalp  and  certain  sensory 
functions.  This  was  in  experiments  on  partial  somnam- 
bulism.* If  the  subject  is  thrown  into  a  state  of  total 
catalepsy,  and  those  points  of  the  scalp  which  become 
painful  during  the  transfer  are  then  mechanically  ex- 
cited by  the  finger  or  by  some  other  blunt  object,  curious 
results  are  produced.  On  exciting  that  point  of  the 
scalp  which  corresponds  with  the  centre  of  vision,  both 
the  subject's  eyes  are  atiected  by  somnambulism ;  they 
lose  their  cataleptic  fixity,  and  follow  the  movements  of 
the  finger.  If  the  point  corresponding  with  the  auditory 
centre  is  excited  in  a  similar  way,  somnambulism  affects 
the  organ  of  hearing,  and  the  subject  who,  up  to  that 
movement  is  completely  insensible  to  the  voice,  hears 
the  orders  addressed  to  him  and  attempts  to  execute 
them,  so  far  as  his  limbs,  which  are  still  cataleptic,  allow. 

We  have  seen  what  effect  is  exerted  by  the  sesthesio- 
gen  on  unilateral  hallucinations;  it  displaces,  and  sub- 
jects them  to  a  series  of  oscillations.  When  the  halluci- 
nation is  bilateral,  the  result  is  different;  it  is  not  a 
transfer,  but  what  we  have  termed  a  polarization.!  Of 
this  we  will  give  some  instances. 

The  usual  hallucination  of  a  bird  perched  on  her 
finger  was  given  to  a  somnambulist  subject.  While  she 
was  caressing  the  imaginary  bird,  she  was  awakened,  and 
a  magnet  was  brought  close  to  her  hea<l.  After  the  lapse 
of  a  few  minutes,  she  suddenly  paused,  raised  her  eyes 

♦  Ferd  and  Binet,  Le  somnamlmlisme  partid  (Soc.  de  Biol.,  1884). 
t  Fere   and  Binet,  La  polarization  -psychique  (Bevue   Philosophique^ 
April,  1885). 


268  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

and  looked  about  her  in  astonishment.  The  bird  which 
she  supposed  to  be  on  her  finger  had  disappeared.  She 
looked  about  the  room,  and  finally  discovered  it,  since 
we  heard  her  say,  "  So  you  leave  me  thus  ! "  The  bird 
presently  disappeared  again,  and  once  more  reappeared. 
The  subject  complained  from  time  to  time  of  pain  in  the 
head  at  the  point  already  described  by  us  as  correspond- 
ing with  the  centre  of  vision. 

The  magnet  exerts  the  same  suspensive  effect  on  a 
real  perception.  For  instance,  after  awaking  one  of  our 
subjects,  we  showed  her  a  Chinese  gong  and  the  pad  with 
which  it  was  sounded.  The  sight  of  the  instrument 
alarmed  the  subject,  and  as  soon  as  it  was  struck,  she  fell 
into  a  state  of  catalepsy.  After  this  preparatory  experi- 
ment, she  was  awakened  and  requested  to  look  attentively 
at  the  gong,  and  meanwhile  a  small  magnet  was 
brought  close  to  her  head.  In  the  course  of  a  minute  she 
asserted  that  she  could  not  see  the  instrument,  and  that 
it  had  completely  disappeared,  and  when  the  gong  was 
sounded,  more  loudly  than  before,  she  did  not  fall  into  a 
state  of  catalepsy,  but  only  looked  about  her  with  an  air 
of  some  surprise.  Hence  it  appears  that  the  magnet  in 
some  sense  paralysed  the  vision  of  the  gong;  the  per- 
ception of  this  object  was  replaced  by  a  corresponding 
anaesthesia,  so  that  the  noise  of  the  gong  no  longer  pro- 
duced catalepsy. 

We  have  also  ascertained  that  the  magnet  destroys  a 
suggested  memory,  just  as  it  destroys  both  real  and 
imaginary  vision.  This  analogous  effect  is  intelligible, 
since  all  these  phenomena  have  a  common  basis.  Memory 
is  an  image,  and  so  also  is  hallucination,  and  an  image  is 
only  a  faint  copy  of  an  anterior  sensation. 


HALLUCINATIONS.  269 

Memory,  hallucination,  and  true  perception  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  secondary  states  of  consciousness  which 
accompany  the  suggestion  of  the  image.  In  the  case  of 
memory,  this  state  consists  in  the  reasoning  which  localizes 
the  image  in  the  past.  In  hallucination  and  true  percep- 
tion these  states  consist  in  reasoning  which  localizes  the 
imao^e  in  the  external  world.     But  these  localizations  in 

o 

space  and  time  are  secondary,  accessory,  superadded  acts. 

One  experiment  on  polarization  clearly  shows  the 
connecting  link  between  these  three  phenomena.  When 
one  of  our  subjects  was  in  the  waking  state,  we  spoke 
to  her  of  the  gong,  begging  her  to  describe  its  form, 
colour,  size,  and  use.  She  repeatedly  told  us  that  she 
saw  it  distinctly  in  her  mind.  When  her  attention  had 
been  firmly  fixed  on  the  idea  of  this  object,  we  applied 
the  magnet,  and  in  the  course  of  a  minute  she  had  a 
difficulty  in  picturing  the  gong  to  herself,  and  ended 
in  being  unable  to  understand  us  when  we  spoke  of  it. 
We  then  took  the  gong  off  a  table  which  stood  near, 
and  offered  it  to  the  subject,  who  did  not  see  it.  Even 
when  it  was  sounded  with  considerable  force,  she  only 
gave  a  slight  start.  But  after  waiting  a  few  seconds,  a 
consecutive  oscillation  took  place ;  her  recollection  of  the 
gong  returned,  together  with  the  vision  of  the  instru- 
ment, and  then  a  slight  stroke  upon  the  gong  sufficed  to 
throw  the  subject  into  a  state  of  catalepsy. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  suppression,  or  rather  the 
paralysis  of  memory,  produced  by  the  application  of  the 
magnet,  induces  a  corresponding  paralysis  of  the  per- 
ception of  the  object.  Since  the  subject  was  unable  to 
picture  the  gong  to  herself,  she  was  also  unable  to  see  it 
when  it  was  presented  to  her. 


270 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 


The  foregoing  account  describes  the  action  of  the 
magnet  on  a  sensation,  an  hallucination,  a  memory,  either 
by  suppressing  them,  or  by  substituting  a  corresponding 


Fig.  10.— Red  cross. 

paralysis.    There  is  an  additional  element  in  polarization, 
the  production  of  a  complementary  phenomenon.     This 


Fig.  11. — Rose-coloured  cross  with  green  rays  between  its  arms. 

is  shown  by  the  following  experiment,  to  which  we 
must  limit  our  description.  We  have  seen  that  after 
looking  intently  at  a  red  cross^  and  then   on  a   white 


HALLUCINATIONS.  271 

surface,  a  green  cross  appears  as  the  consecutive  sensa- 
tion; in  the  subjective  image  the  primitive  colour  is 
replaced  by  its  complementary,  but  the  form  of  the  cross 
still  persists.  The  same  thing  occurs  when  the  hallucina- 
tion of  a  red  cross  is  evoked,  or  when  the  same  coloured 
figure  is  presented  to  the  imagination  with  sufficient 
intensity. 


Fig.  12. — The  cross  has  disappeared,  leaving  a  space.     The  green  rays 
have  become  elongated  and  of  a  darker  shade. 


If  we  inform  one  of  our  subjects,  W or  C , 

while  in  the  waking  state,  that  the  cross  we  have  just 
drawn  on  a  piece  of  white  paper  is  coloured  red,  and  if 
we  then  request  him  to  consider  this  cross  attentively 
while  a  magnet  is,  without  his  knowledge,  placed  behind 
his  head,  we  have  the  following  result :  the  subject  sees 
green  rays  appear  between  the  arms  of  the  cross,  these 
rays  gradually  become  elongated  and  at  the  same  time 


272  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

the  original  red  tint  of  the  cross  changes  to  pink.  For 
an  instant  the  cross  appears  to  be  green,  and  then  all 
colour  disappears  from  the  original  figure,  and  the  subject 
perceives  a  blank  cross,  a  space  surrounded  by  the 
persistent  green  rays  (Fig.  12,  p.  271).  If  at  this  moment 
a  red  cross  is  placed  over  the  outlined  figure,  the  subject 
is  unable  to  see  it.  The  magnet  produces  analogous  effects 
on  the  memory  of  coloured  objects. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  apply  similar  experiments 
to  the  senses  of  taste,  smell,  and  hearing,  in  order  to 
ascertain  whether  in  the  case  of  these  sensory  organs 
it  is  possible  to  establish  a  theory  of  complementary 
sensations,  comparable  to  those  of  vision.  We  have 
merely  had  occasion  to  observe  that  under  the  influence 
of  the  magnet  a  suggested  impression  of  heat  is  replaced 
by  an  impression  of  cold,  which  causes  shivering. 


In  the  case  of  some  subjects,  the  hallucination  begins 
and  ends  during  somnambulism.  In  others  it  is  more 
permanent,  and  persists  during  the  waking  state.  It 
will  be  easily  understood  that  the  duration  of  post-hyp- 
notic hallucination  is  very  variable,  since  it  depends  on 
many  circumstances. 

In  the  case  of  subjects  whose  hypnotic  hallucinations 
continue  in  the  waking  state,  it  is  interesting  to  inquire 
what  the  hallucination  becomes  in  its  new  environment. 
It  might  at  first  appear  that  the  subject  would  on 
awaking  correct  her  hallucination  and  in  some  sense  expel 
it  from  her  intelligence,  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  case. 
In  subjects  affected  by  profound  hypnotism  the  hallucina- 


HALLUCINATIONS.  273 

tion  which  persists  in  the  waking  state  is  accompanied  by 
blind  confidence.  It  is  useless  to  tell  the  subject  that  she 
is  the  victim  of  an  illusion,  and  that  the  portrait  which 
she  thinks  she  sees  is  an  imaginary  vision.  She  regards 
such  language  as  a  mockery,  and  if  it  is  repeated  the 
subject  becomes  uneasy  and  assumes  a  distracted  air, 
and  indeed  on  one  occasion  an  hysterical  attack  appeared 
to  be  imminent.  These  facts  seem  to  show  that  a  con- 
viction of  the  reality  of  the  hallucination  is  an  essential 
part  of  the  phenomenon;  the  hallucination  does  not 
merely  consist  in  the  external  projection  of  a  sensible 
image,  but  in  the  condition  of  mind  which  accompanies 
the  projection  of  this  image. 

On  one  occasion  we  informed  our  subject  before 
hypnotizing  her,  that  we  were  going  to  suggest  an 
hallucination,  and  we  agreed  that  she  should,  on  awaking, 
make  every  effort  to  correct  the  hallucination  and  regard 
it  as  false.  After  hypnotizing  her,  we  gave  her  the 
suggestion  that  a  gold  ten-franc  piece,  bearing  the  Q^igy 
of  Napoleon  III.,  was  lying  on  the  table.  When  she 
awoke,  she  still  saw  this  coin.  We  said  to  the  subject, 
"  You  know  what  we  agreed  upon.  We  gave  you  an 
hallucination,  and  the  gold  coin  is  not  really  there."  She 
looked  at  us  with  a  stupefied  air,  or  I  might  almost  say 
in  a  stupor,  our  words  seemed  to  her  so  amazing.  The 
mere  idea  that  it  was  possible  to  doubt  the  existence  of 
a  piece  of  money  which  she  saw  and  touched  seemed  to 
disturb  her  intelligence.  But  she  soon  recovered  herself, 
and  p(!sitively  declared  that  she  saw  the  coin,  that  it  was 
a  real  coin,  and  that  we  were  laughing  at  her  in  asserting 
the  contrary.  It  was  impossible  to  infuse  the  slightest 
doubt  into  her  mind.  The  hallucination  might  be  destroyed 


274  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

by  suggestion,  but  as  long  as  it  remained,  the  subject 
believed  it  with  all  her  might. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  writers  have  declared  that  it 
was  only  necessary  to  tell  the  subject  that  the  hallucination 
was  suggested  to  destroy  his  belief  in  the  reality  of  the 
vision.  We  have  only  met  with  this  submission  in  our 
subjects  when  the  hallucination  was  fading  away,  and 
had  lost  its  intensity. 

We  have  still  to  say  how  the  hallucination  which  has 
been  produced  may  be  destroyed.  It  is  often  very  im- 
portant to  leave  no  trace  of  a  sensory  disturbance  which 
may  have  dangerous  consequences  for  those  who  are 
brought  in  contact  with  the  patient.  Any  subject  of  hal- 
lucination is  as  dangerous  as  some  explosive  substance. 
In  many  cases  the  hallucination  is  spontaneously  effaced, 
and  this  mode  of  disappearance  has  been  well  described 
by  some  subjects.  The  imaginary  object  loses  its  dis- 
tinctness of  outline,  it  becomes  transparent,  and  ceases 
to  conceal  the  real  objects  before  which  it  is  placed, 
and  it  finally  seems  to  melt  into  air  (Richer).  In  other 
cases,  the  hallucination  disappears  during  the  waking 
state,  after  an  interval  which  varies  with  the  subject. 
Some  are  in  despair  when  the  imaginary  object  dis- 
appears. One  subject,  to  whom  Bernheim  had  given 
imaginary  rings,  bracelets,  and  fans,  implored  him  to  leave 
her  in  possession  of  these  gifts,  since  experience  had 
taught  her  their  fugitive  nature.  Others  try  to  find  some 
mode    of    accounting    for    this    strange    disappearance. 

X ,  who,  at  the  end  of  a  few  days,  saw  the  portraits 

which  had  been  suggested  to  him  fade  away,  and  the 
cards  become  blank,  explained  the  fact  by  saying  that  the 
photographs  had  been  badly  focussed. 


HALLUCLVATIONS.  275 

The  simplest  mode  of  destroying  the  hallucination  is 
to  assure  the  subject  that  he  has  seen,  heard,  and  felt 
nothing.  Sometimes  he  resists  this  intimation.  The 
magnet  may  also  be  employed,  if  the  subject  is  sensitive 
to  this  sesthesiogen ;  we  have  already  seen  that  the 
magnet  rapidly  destroys  a  bilateral  hallucination.  For 
the  most  part,  the  hallucination  and  all  recollection  of 
it  disappears  together;  such  amnesia  may  even  occur 
when  the  hallucination  has  been  produced  in  the  waking 
state,  and  this  is  a  valuable  note  by  which  we  may 
ascertain  the  sincerity  of  the  experiment. 

This  is  the  place  for  mentioning  some  curious  pheno- 
mena. A  somnambulist  was  shown  a  real  scent  bottle, 
which  was  on  the  table,  and  it  was  then  removed,  and 
she  was  told  that  it  was  still  there.  On  awaking  she  saw 
the  imaginary  scent  bottle,  and  was  unable  to  see,  smell, 
or  in  any  way  perceive  the  real  one.  It  was  placed  in 
her  hand,  passed  over  her  face,  struck  with  a  key,  and 
she  was  not  the  least  aware  of  it.  The  perception  of  the 
real  object  was  completely  paralysed  by  the  imaginary 
vision  of  the  same  object. 

Here  is  another  example.  The  hallucination  was 
given  to  X that  one  of  the  present  writers  at- 
tended a  ball  which  is  annually  given  at  the  Salpe- 
triere ;  she  saw  him  distinctly  and  spoke  to  him  several 
times  during  the  ball.  He  came  to  the  Salpetriere  on 
duty  on  the  following  day,  in  reality  this  time,  and  not 

in  hallucination.     X saw,  but  did  not  recognize  him, 

taking  him  for  a  stranger.  It  was  necessary  to  hypno- 
tize her  in  order  to  restore  the  perception  of  his  person. 

An  hallucination  may  also  be  destroyed  by  a  simple 
physical  excitement.     It  is  suggested  to  a  somnambulist 


276  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

that  she  hears  a  letter  repeated,  L,  for  example.  On 
awaking  she  continues  to  hear  the  same  sound.  On 
opening  her  mouth  it  is  ascertained  that  the  movements 
of  her  tongue  coincide  with  each  mental  act  of  hearing. 
If  this  movement  is  checked  by  an  energetic  pressure, 
the  hallucination  disappears.  It  also  disappears  if  the 
subject  protrudes  her  tongue,  and  keeps  it  in  this  con- 
strained attitude,  or  again  if  a  contracture  is  produced. 

We  see,  therefore,  that  an  hallucination  may  be 
destroyed  by  three  different  processes,  by  suggestion,  by 
physical  excitement,  and  by  the  magnet.  It  is  probable 
that  the  two  latter  agents  really  act  by  suggestion. 

Hallucination,  of  which  we  have  now  described  the 
chief  characteristics,  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  series  of 
much  more  complex  and  more  obscure  phenomena;  it 
may  therefore  serve  as  the  preparation  and  introduction 
to  the  study  of  these  higher  phenomena,  among  which 
we  may  mention  the  conceptions  of  delirium. 


(    277    ) 


CHAPTER  X. 

SUGGESTIONS   OF  MOVEMENTS  AND   OF   ACTS. 

Motor  suggestions  present  us  with  a  series  of  experi- 
ments which  start  from  a  simple,  natural,  and  even  fairly 
intelligible  phenomenon,  the  suggestion  of  a  movement, 
and  culminate  in  complex  phenomena  which  it  is  most 
difficult  to  explain,  the  suggestion  of  acts.  Acts  do  not 
consist  merely  of  movements,  but  of  sensations,  percep- 
tions, reasoning,  reflection,  and  will.  The  act  may  be 
said  to  be  the  resultant  in  which  all  the  intellectual, 
moral,  and  motor  functions  of  the  individual  converge. 

The  simplest  suggestions  of  movement  belong  to  the 
cataleptic  phase.  We  have  seen  that  harmony  is  the 
chief  feature  of  the  attitudes  artificially  impressed  upon 
the  subject. 

The  expressive  movements  given  by  the  experimenter 
to  different  parts  of  the  body  are  always  immediately 
reflected  in  the  countenance,  which  thus  completes  the 
expression.  Braid  clearly  saw  this  influence  of  the 
gesture  on  the  countenance,  and  we  regard  this  fact  as 
one  of  the  finest  and  most  wonderful  results  of  hypnotic 
experiments.  It  aflfords  to  psychology  a  valuable  source 
of  information  in  the  expressive  mechanism  of  the  emo- 
tions, and  it  furnishes  the  artist  with  a  motionless  model. 
13 


278  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

representing  with  striking  fidelity  all  the  sentiments  of 
which  man  is  capable.  It  has  been  said  that  the  sculp- 
tors of  antiquity  took  women  in  a  state  of  catalepsy  for 
their  models,  and  there  is  nothing  improbable  in  the  fact. 
An  infinite  number  of  expressive  attitudes  may  be 
given  to  the  subject,  who  may  be  caused  to  express 
ecstasy,  prayer,  grief,  suffering,  disdain,  anger,  and  fear. 
If  the  extended,  hand  is  approached  to  the  mouth,  as  if 
in  the  act  of  sending  a  kiss,  the  mouth  smiles.  If  the 
fists  are  clenched,  the  brows  contract  and  the  face  ex- 
presses anger.  This  reaction  of  the  gesture  on  the 
countenance  is  not  only  seen  in  catalepsy  but  in  other 
states,  as,  for  instance,  in  somnambulism,  and  even, 
although  in  a  minor  degree,  in  the  waking  state.  But 
the  maximum  of  intensity  only  occurs  in  cataleptic 
subjects,  on  account  of  the  complete  automatism  which 
characterizes  this  state.  The  slightest  change  in  the 
attitude  of  the  limbs  produces  a  corresponding  modifica- 
tion of  the  expression.  When  the  open  hand  is  carried 
to  the  lips,  there  is  a  smile ;  when  the  fist  is  clenched, 
there  is  an  expression  of  anger.  Moreover,  this  reaction 
of  the  expression  takes  place,  with  whatever  rapidity  the 
change  in  the  attitude  of  the  limbs  may  be  effected.  If 
the  subject's  open  hand  is  taken  and  moved  swiftly  to 
the  mouth  and  again  withdrawn,  a  formal  smile  is  seen 
on  the  lips  as  the  hand  approaches,  which  passes  away 
as  soon  as  it  is  withdrawn.  Again,  the  influence  of  the 
gesture  on  the  countenance  may  be  rendered  unilateral ; 
when  the  left  hand  is  clenched,  a  frown  is  seen  on  the 
left  side  only,  and  if  at  the  same  time  the  right  hand  is 
approached  to  the  mouth,  there  is  a  smile  on  the  right 
side  of  the  face.  Each  side  of  the  face  thus  expresses 
a  different  emotion. 


SUGGESTIONS   OF  MOVEMENTS   AND  OF  ACTS.      279 

It  occurred  to  Charcot  and  Richer  to  modify  the 
gesture  by  acting  on  the  countenance.  By  means  of 
localized  faradization  they  developed  a  given  emotion 
on  the  features,  and  the  body  at  once  assumed  an  attitude 
in  correspondence  with  that  emotion.  When  once  it 
has  been  produced,  the  emotion  impressed  upon  the 
features  does  not  become  effaced,  and  the  position  of 
the  limbs  is  likewise  persistent.  It  is  possible,  by 
graduating  the  force  of  the  current,  to  cause  the  subject 
to  express  different  degrees  of  the  same  emotion.  We 
have  seen  that  in  a  state  of  lethargy,  all  the  muscles  of 
the  face  may  be  contracted  separately,  by  pressing  the 
finger  on  their  motor  points.  The  experiment  of  which 
we  are  now  speaking  is  of  a  somewhat  different  character, 
and  of  greater  importance  in  the  study  of  the  play  of 
countenance.  The  excitement  is  no  longer,  as  in  lethargy, 
localized  in  the  muscle  which  is  touched ;  it  is  communi- 
cated to  the  other  facial  muscles,  which  must  also  be 
brought  into  play  in  order  to  produce  the  desired 
expression. 

It  has  often  been  asked  what  is  occurrinor  in  the 
mind  of  the  cataleptic  subject,  when  he  is  placed  in  an 
emotional  attitude.  There  is  a  curious  contrast  between 
his  statuesque  immobility  and  the  tragic  expression  of 
his  countenance;  in  one  sense  he  appears  to  see  and 
hear  nothing,  and  in  another  he  displays  intense  emotion. 
It  occurred  to  Richer  to  resolve  the  problem  by  con- 
sulting the  respiratory  tracings  of  the  subject  under 
experiment.  He  effected  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
which  express  terror,  and,  strange  to  say,  while  the 
features  and  gestures  of  the  subject  expressed  the  most 
lively  alarm,  the  breathing,  after  one  abrupt  act  of  expira- 


280  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

tion,  resumed  the  calmness  and  immobility  characteristic 
of  catalepsy.  Hence  we  may  infer  that  in  the  cataleptic 
subject  suggestions  by  the  muscular  sense  are  more 
superficial  than  the  suggestions  of  somnambulism. 

The  chief  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  studies 
is  the  influence  exerted  on  psj^chical  activity  by  the 
expressive  movements  of  the  countenance  and  of  the 
whole  body.  The  expression  is  not  merely  an  external 
sign  of  the  emotion,  but  it  forms  an  integral  part  of  it. 
Even  in  the  normal  state,  when  an  expression  is  arti- 
ficially produced,  it  gives  rise  to  the  corresponding 
emotion,  which  passes  away  when  the  expression  changes. 
Dugald  Stewart's  remarks  on  this  subject  have  been 
often  quoted.  He  observes  that  just  as  every  mental 
emotion  produces  a  sensible  effect  on  the  body,  so  when 
the  countenance  assumes  the  expression  of  any  strong 
emotion,  accompanied  by  analogous  gestures,  the  emotion 
corresponding  with  this  artificial  expression  is  in  some 
degree  felt.  Burke  asserted  that  he  had  often  experi- 
enced the  awakening  of  the  passion  of  anger  in  proportion 
as  he  assumed  the  external  signs  of  that  passion,  and 
Stewart  did  not  doubt  that  in  the  case  of  many  individuals 
the  same  experiment  would  afford  the  same  results. 
Burke  also  remarked  that  when  Campanella,  a  celebrated 
philosopher  and  great  physiognomist,  wished  to  know 
what  was  passing  in  the  mind  of  another  person,  he 
imitated,  as  well  as  he  could,  the  attitude  and  counte- 
nance of  the  person  in  question,  and  at  the  same  time  he 
concentrated  his  attention  on  his  own  emotions. 

Suggestions  of  attitude  constitute  the  simplest  form 
of  automatism.  A  given  number  of  co-ordinated  move- 
ments   may  moreover  be   produced   in   some   cataleptic 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS   AND   OF  ACTS.      281 

subjects  by  placing  their  limbs  in  a  certain  position. 
For  instance,  if  his  hand  is  approached  to  his  nose,  the 
subject  will  blow  his  nose.  Or  certain  impulses,  which 
may  be  indefinitely  prolonged,  may  be  impressed  on  his 
limbs,  as  when  the  subject  is  made  to  twirl  his  thumbs, 
he  will  continue  this  automatic  movement  until  it  is 
stopped  mechanically  or  by  suggestion.  These  phe- 
nomena are  simply  automatic,  and  can  be  explained 
in  great  measure  by  the  laws  of  the  association  of 
movements. 

A  higher  form  of  automatism  consists  in  what 
Heidenhain  calls  imitative  automatism.  The  experi- 
menter begins  by  looking  fixedly  at  the  subject,  so  as  to 
arrest  his  gaze,  and  then  draws  back.  The  subject  rises 
to  follow  the  experimenter,  of  whom  he  never  loses  sight, 
and  he  imitates  his  every  movement,  whatever  it  may  be. 
In  this  way  he  can  be  made  to  laugh,  whistle,  sing,  blow 
his  nose,  clap  his  hands  and  feet  together.  The  subject 
reflects  the  acts  of  the  experimenter  as  a  mirror  might 
do;  he  imitates  with  his  right  hand  the  movements  of 
the  experimenter's  left  hand,  who  stands  opposite  to  him. 
Despine  has  termed  this  phenomenon  specular  imitation. 

Automatism  may  also  be  produced  by  the  recollection 
of  the  use  of  an  object.  This  is  a  less  direct  process,  and 
the  automatism  is  more  complex.  For  instance,  if  a  cake 
of  soap  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  cataleptic  subject,  he 
rubs  his  hands,  as  if  in  the  act  of  washing  them.  If  an 
umbrella  is  given  to  him,  he  opens  it,  shivering,  as  if 
sensible  of  the  coming  storm.  Sight,  or  contact  with  the 
object,  automatically  arouses  a  series  of  movements  which 
are  in  the  normal  state  associated  with  the  same  sensory 
impression.     The  subject  relies  on  a  basis  of  habits,  and 


282  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

invents  nothing.  •  An  unknown  object  produces  no 
suggestion. 

This  is  not  the  place  for  insisting  on  the  analogies 
which  exist  between  the  movements,  acts,  and  suofsrested 
ideas  of  hypnotic  subjects  and  the  spasmodic  movements 
and  ideas  of  the  insane.  We  will  only  remark  that  in 
the  case  of  the  latter,  an  impulsive  act  is  not  un- 
frequently  induced  by  the  sight  of  an  appropriate  object. 
Max  Simon  gives  an  instance  of  a  learned  man  who  was 
seized  by  an  overwhelming  impulse  to  cut  his  throat 
when  he  was  shaving,  and  who  could  only  overcome  it 
by  desisting  from  this  operation.  Many  other  analogous 
facts  might  be  cited. 

Certain  acts  which  are  not  purely  mechanical  cannot 
be  suggested  merely  by  the  presence  of  the  instrument 
which  effects  them.  The  act  of  writing,  for  instance,  not 
only  involves  the  exercise  of  the  hand  which  traces  the 
characters,  but  of  the  thought  which  co-ordinates  the 
words  in  a  given  sequence.      If,  during  the  cataleptic 

state,  a  pen  is  placed  between  B 's  fingers,  she  holds 

it  loosely,  and  at  the  end  of  a  few  moments  lets  it  drop, 
without  making  any  attempt  to  use  it.  If  a  sentence  is 
dictated  to  her  while  she  holds  the  pen,  a  word  at  a  time, 
or  still  better,  a  syllable  at  a  time,  she  may  be  induced 
to  write  a  phrase  or  two  in  her  own  orthography,  but 
the  writing  is  irregular,  since  it  is  due  to  the  influence  of 
successive  suggestions  which  are  disconnected  in  the 
subject's  mind.  Yet  if  care  is  taken  about  the  position 
of  the  hand,  an  autograph  may  be  obtained  which  can 
hardly  be  distinguished  from  those  which  are  written  in 
the  waking  state. 

There  are  several  proofs  of  the  absence  of  design. 


SUGGESTIONS   OF   MOVEMENTS  AND   OF   ACTS.      283 

The  subject  to  whom  soap  is  given  will  go  on  washing 
his  hands  indefinitely,  and  on  one  occasion  the  operation 
was  protracted  for  two  hours  (Regnard).  If  a  subject  is 
putting  on  her  boot,  she  will  go  on  doing  up  and  undoing 
the  laces  for  an  indefinite  period,  and  if  a  piece  of  crochet 
work  is  given  her,  she  will  make  a  long  chain  of  loop- 
stitch  without  attaching  it  to  the  rest  of  the  work. 
Sometimes  the  act  which  is  begun  is  continued  indefi- 
nitely, owing  to  contact  with  the  object  which  suggests 
the  idea  of  employing  it.  More  frequently,  when  the 
suggestion  is  exhausted,  the  subject  stops  short  and 
becomes  rigid  in  catalepsy.  A  species  of  oscillation  may 
be  observed  between  the  cataleptic  attitude  and  the 
psychical  phenomena  produced  by  suggestion.  While 
the  subject  is  affected  by  the  suggestion,  catalepsy  ceases  ; 
as  soon  as  the  suggestion  comes  to  an  end,  catalepsy 
reappears. 

During  the  automatic  activity  it  is  possible  to  affect 
the  subject  unilaterally.  Take  a  subject,  for  instance,  be- 
fore whom  are  placed  a  jug  and  basin  and  some  soap.  As 
soon  as  her  eyes  are  attracted  to  these  objects  the  subject, 
with  apparent  spontaneity,  pours  water  into  the  basin, 
takes  the  soap  and  washes  her  hands  with  scrupulous 
care.  If  one  of  her  eyes  is  then  closed,  the  same  side  of 
the  body  becomes  lethargic,  while  the  other  hand  con- 
tinues to  exert  the  same  movements.  So,  again,  when 
the  subject  is  working  crochet  and  one  eye  is  closed,  the 
corresponding  hand  becomes  motionless,  while  the  other 
continues  to  exercise  the  same  movements  alone,  althousfh 
they  are  rendered  useless  by  its  isolation.  Yet,  as  Richer 
observes,  the  intelligence  seems  to  take  some  part  in 
the  unilateral  movements;  the  subject  tries   to  supply 


284  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

the  place  of  the  missing  hand  by  supporting  the  other  on 
the  knee  or  breast. 

None  of  these  phenomena  are  peculiar  to  catalepsy : 
they  may  all  be  readily  reproduced  in  somnambulism. 
But  in  catalepsy  the  movements  are  simpler  and  more 
automatic ;  the  impulse  seems  to  be  irresistible. 

It  may  be  profitable  to  consider  the  facts  of  automatic 
imitation  which  are  so  readily  produced  in  the  cataleptic 
state ;  the  echoing  of  any  utterance,  or  echolalia.  It  is 
long  since  pathologists  became  acquainted  with  this 
phenomenon,  which  was  discovered  by  Berger  in  the  case 
of  hypnotic  subjects.  It  is  produced  in  a  somnambulist 
by  applying  the  hand  to  the  forehead  or  to  the  nape  of  the 
neck ;  the  subject,  who  up  to  that  time  has  answered  the 
questions  put  to  him  with  distinctness,  at  once  repeats, 
instead  of  replying  to  the  questions,  as  if  he  were 
transformed  into  a  phonograph.  He  may  be  made  to 
sing,  scream,  cough  or  sneeze;  he  will  repeat  words 
uttered  in  languages  unknown  to  him,  with  an  exact- 
ness which  is  often  surprising.  Some  subjects  also  retain 
tunes,  and  may  be  made  to  sing  a  musical  air;  if  a 
vibrating  tuning-fork  is  applied  to  the  ear,  the  subject 
reproduces  the  sound,  with  its  pitch  and  quality.  In 
this  state  also  the  subject  automatically  imitates  all 
the  gestures  of  the  experimenter  (Charcot). 

Marie  and  Azoulay*  have  measured  the  period  of 
reaction  in  echolalia.  They  adopted  the  following 
arrangement.  A  telephone  was  applied  to  the  subject's 
ear,  and  his  mouth  was  provided  with  a  mouthpiece,  so 
constructed  that  when  the  word  "  toe "  was  uttered  by 
the  subject,  an  electric  signal  was  given  by  Marey's 
*  Soc.  de  Psycliologie,  May  18,  1885. 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS   AND   OF   ACTS.      285 

tambour.  At  the  other  end  the  fixed  telephone  was 
inserted  in  a  circuit  which  included  an  electric  contact 
and  one  of  Deprez's  signals,  also  registering  on  the  same 
cylinder.  Thus,  when  the  electric  contact  took  place, 
a  sound  in  the  telephone  and  a  signal  on  the  cylinder 
were  simultaneously  produced.  The  subject  said  "  toe," 
whenever  he  heard  the  sound  in  the  telephone,  so  as  to 
give  the  period  of  personal  reaction,  as  far  as  his  auditory 
impressions  were  concerned. 

In  the  waking  state  this  period  was  -^^^  of  a  second. 

In  the  somnambulist  state fijjj        „ 

In  echolalia -^^^        „ 


IT. 

Acts  only  differ  from  movements  in  their  complexity. 
Acts  consist  of  associated  movements,  adapted  by  the 
subject  to  the  end  which  he  has  in  view.  We  wish 
to  study  these  acts  in  the  phase  of  somnambulism. 

Verbal  suggestion  is  the  process  usually  employed. 
Heidenhain  observed  that  when  he  said  to  his  hypnotized 
brother,  "If  I  had  a  watch,  I  should  like  to  see  what 
o'clock  it  is,"  no  effects  ensued.  But  if  he  said,  "  Show 
me  your  watch,"  the  order  was  at  once  obeyed.  We 
have  been  successful  in  giving  such  orders  in  writing. 
As  soon  as  the  subject  read  the  words :  "  I  am  going  to 
rise,"  he  arose.  In  short,  the  only  necessary  condition  is 
that  the  image  of  the  act  in  question  should  be  distinctly 
formed  in  the  subject's  mind. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  mathematical  precision  with 
which  the  suggested  act  is  executed  on  awaking,  one  of 
the  present  writers  performed  the  following  experiment. 


286  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

We  showed  to  the  somnambulist  an  imaginary  spot  on  a 
smooth  surface,  which  we  could  only  afterwards  ascertain 
by  means  of  careful  measurement,  and  we  ordered  her 
to  stick  a  penknife  into  this  spot  when  she  awoke.  She 
executed  the  order  without  hesitation  and  with  absolute 
correctness :  a  criminal  act  would  have  been  as  punctually 
executed.* 

It  is  interesting  to  ascertain  whether  the  subject  who 
is  actuated  by  an  irresistible  impulse  behaves  like  an  auto- 
maton subsisting  on  a  basis  of  the  past,  on  his  memory 
and  habits,  or  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  subject  is  capable 
of  reflection  and  of  reasoning  like  a  normal  individual. 
This  latter  is  more  frequently  the  case.  When  care 
is  taken  to  suggest  a  somewhat  complex  act,  for  the 
performance  of  which  some  combination  is  necessary,  we 
may  observe  that  the  subject  invents  such  combined 
expedients  although  they  had  not  been  suggested  to  him, 
and  this  inventive  process  shows  that  everything  is  not 
explained  by  comparing  him  to  an  automaton.  For 
instance,  it  was  suggested  to  a  subject  that  she  should 

poison   X with   a   glass  of -pure  water  which  was 

said  to  contain  poison.  The  suggestion  did  not  indicate 
in  what  way   the   crime   was   to   be   committed.     The 

subject  offered  the  glass  to  X ,  and  invited  him  to 

drink  by  saying,  "  Is  it  not  a  hot  day  ? "  (It  was  in 
summer.)  We  ordered  another  subject  to  steal  a  pocket- 
handkerchief  from  one  of  the  persons  present.  The 
subject  was  hardly  awake  when  she  feigned  dizziness, 

and  staggering  towards  X ,  she  fell  against  him  and 

hastily  snatched  his  handkerchief.  When  a  similar  theft 
was  suggested  to  a  third  subject,  she  approached  X , 

*  Ch.  Fere,  Les  hypnotiques  hyd^nquesy  etc. 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS  AND  OF  ACTS.     287 

and  abruptly  asked  him  what  he  had  on  his  hand.  While 
X ,  somewhat  startled,  looked  at  his  hand,  his  hand- 
kerchief disappeared.  None  of  these  expedients  were  sug- 
gested, but  were  derived  by  the  subjects  from  their  own 
resources.  These  complex  phenomena  cannot  be  referred 
to  the  simple  fact  that  the  image  of  a  movement  produces 
that  movement ;  such  a  rudimentary  explanation  can  only 
appl}^  to  elementary  experiments. 

There  are  numerous  instances  of  resistance  in  hypno- 
tized subjects.  The  order  is  disregarded,  and  not  executed 
by  the  subject.  The  failure  may  arise  from  two  different 
causes,  derived  either  from  the  experimenter  or  from  his 
subject.  In  the  former  case,  as  one  of  the  present 
writers  has  already  observed,  the  promptness  and  energy 
with  which  the  act  is  performed  depends  on  the  authority 
with  which  the  suggestion  is  given.  When  the  order  is 
given  gently  and  indecisively,  the  subject  awakes  in  a 
state  of  mind  which  it  is  interesting  to  study.  She  is 
uneasy,  beset  by  the  fixed  idea  that  she  has  to  do  sorae- 
thincr  which  is  absurd  or  revolting — to  embrace  a  skull, 
for  example.  She  hesitates  long,  and  sometimes  even 
expresses  her  hesitation,  saying,  "  I  must  be  mad,  to  wish 
to  embrace  a  skull.  It  is  absurd ;  I  do  not  wish  to  do  it, 
and  yet  it  seems  impossible  to  resist."  And  eventually 
she  does  it.  It  should  be  added  that  the  personality  of 
the  experimenter  has  some  share  in  the  efficacy  of  the 
suggestion ;  a  subject  may  resist  an  order  given  by  one 
person,  and  obey  the  same  order  given  by  another. 
These  facts  were  known  to  the  early  magnetizers,  and 
they  recommended  the  experimenter  to  use  an  authorita- 
tive tone,  and  the  subject  to  be  perfectly  submissive. 
At  another  time  the  subject's  resistance  may  be  due 


288  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

to  the  nature  of  the  suggested  act.  This  resistance  may- 
be said  to  be  a  survival  of  the  subject's  personality ;  his 
personal  reaction  which  is  not  completely  destroyed  by 
the  hypnotic  sleep.  Such  resistance  occurs  most  fre- 
quently in  those  affected  by  profound  hypnotism,  and  it 
is  more  common  in  some  states  than  in  others.  We  have 
already  observed  the  automatism  of  the  somnambulant 
state  is  much  less  absolute  than  that  of  catalepsy ;  the 
cataleptic  subject  is  a  machine,  the  somnambulist  is  a 
person.  The  first  readily  performs  all  the  acts  suggested, 
while  the  second  often  offers  a  resistance  which  may 
become  troublesome  to  the  experimenter. 

Many  subjects  display  their  honesty  by  refusing  to 
commit  the  thefts  suggested  to  them.  They  assign 
various  motives  for  the  refusal.  Sometimes  the  subject 
may  reply :  "  No,  I  will  not  steal ;  I  am  no  thief."  Some- 
times the  motive  is  not  so  high.  Many  subjects  reply 
to  the  suggestion  by  saying  frankly,  "  Some  one  will  see 
me."     The  suggestions  of  murder  may  provoke  similar 

objections.     If  Z is  armed  with  a  paper-knife,  and 

ordered  to  kill  X -,  she  says,  "  Why  should  I  do  it  ? 

He  has  done  me  no  harm."  But  if  the  experimenter 
insists,  this  slight  scruple  may  be  overcome,  and  she 
soon   says,   "If  it   must  be   done,   I   will   do  it."     On 

awaking,   she   regards   X with   a   perfidious  smile, 

looks  about  her,  and  suddenly  strikes  him  with  the 
supposed  dagger.  But  neither  this  subject  nor  any  other 
could  be  impelled  to  murder  some  unspecified  person. 
Another  of  our  subjects  presented  an  interesting  example 
of  invincible  resistance.  She  had  been  deeply  attached 
to  a  young  man,  and  although  she  had  suffered  much 
from  him,  the  passion  was  not  extinct.     If  the  presence 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS  AND  OF  ACTS.      289 

of  this  man  was  evoked,  she  instantly  displayed  signs  of 
great  distress,  and  attempted  to  escape ;  but  it  was  im- 
possible to  induce  her  to  do  anything  which  might  be 
injurious  to  him  whose  victim  she  had  been.  Yet  she 
automatically  obeyed  every  other  command.  Another 
subject  cannot  be  induced  to  repeat  a  prayer;  a  second 
will  not  sing  a  song  which  she  has  composed,  reflecting 
on  one  of  the  present  writers ;  a  third  resists  the  order 
to  sign  a  cheque  for  a  million  francs,  and  will  only  do  so 
for  a  much  smaller  sum. 

Some  hypnotized  persons  have  the  illusion  of  resist- 
ance, and  believe  that  they  can  resist  if  they  please. 
These  illusions  do  not  occur  when  the  sleep  is  profound, 
and  we  have  not  met  with  them  in  our  subjects,  but 
Eichet  has  observed  them  in  some  cases.  He  writes: 
"One  of  my  friends,  who  was  drowsy  but  not  quite 
asleep,  carefully  studied  this  phenomenon  of  incapacity, 
combined  with  the  illusion  of  capacity.  When  I  pre- 
scribed a  movement,  he  always  performed  it,  even 
although  he  had,  before  he  was  magnetized,  been  deter- 
mined to  resist.  He  found  this  hard  to  understand  when 
he  awoke,  and  said  that  he  certainly  could  have  resisted, 
only  he  ^\(i  not  wish  to  do  so.  Sometimes  he  was 
inclined  to  believe  that  he  was  simulating.  'When  I 
am  asleep,'  he  said,  'I  feign  automatism,  although  I 
believe  that  I  might  act  otherwise.  I  begin  with  the 
firm  determination  not  to  simulate,  but  as  soon  as  I  am 
asleep  it  seems  that,  in  spite  of  myself,  simulation 
begins.'  It  is  evident  that  this  mode  of  simulating  a 
phenomenon  does  not  differ  from  the  real  phenomenon. 
The  automatism  is  proved  by  the  simple  fact  that  in  all 
good  faith  persons  act  like  automata.     It  matters  little  i 


290  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

that,  they  believe  themselves  capable  of  resistance,  since 
as  a  fact  they  do  not  resist.  This  is  what  we  have  to 
consider,  not  their  illusion  as  to  their  imaginary  power 
of  resistance."  * 

Among  the  psychical  phenomena  which  accompany 
the  motor  impulse  that  is  suggested,  there  is  perhaps 
none  more  interesting  than  the  apparent  motives  which 
the  subject  assigns  to  his  act.  These  facts  show,  as  the 
illusion  of  resistance  has  already  shown,  that  the  subject 
is  altogether  ignorant  of  the  original  source  of  the  im- 
pulse he  has  received.  When  the  subject  awakes,  and 
performs  the  act  which  was  suggested  to  him  during 
somnambulism,  he  generally  supposes  it  to  be  sponta- 
neous ;  the  suggested  act,  imposed  by  the  will  of  another, 
seems  to  him  of  precisely  the  same  nature  as  those  acts 
which  he  performs  of  his  own  initiative.  And  again,  since 
he  is  unaware  of  the  true  cause  of  action,  the  subject  in- 
vents a  motive,  more  or  less  plausible  or  ingenious,  to 
explain  to  himself  the  reason  of  his  conduct.  Richet 
was  the  first  to  make  a  regular  study  of  this  phenome- 
non, and   we   give   some   of  his   observations :    "  When 

B was  hypnotized,  I  said  to  her:  'On  awakening, 

you  will  take  the  shade  off  the  lamp.'  I  awoke  her,  and 
when  we  had  conversed  for  a  few  minutes,  she  said: 
*  We  do  not  see  well,'  and  she  took  off  the  shade.   Another 

time  I  said  to  B ,  *  When  you  awake,  you  will  put 

a  good  deal  of  sugar  in  your  tea.'  I  awoke  her,  tea  was 
served,  and  she  filled  her  cup  with  sugar.  Some  one 
asked  what  she  was  about.  '  I  am  putting  in  the  sugar/ 
'But  you  put  in  too  much.' — 'Really!  that  is  a  pity/ 
And  she  continued  to  put  it  in.  Then  she  said,  on  finding 
*  Richet,  Vhommi  et  V intelligence. 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS  AND  OF  ACTS.     291 

the  tea  undrinkable :  '  What  would  you  have  ?  It  was 
a  stupid  thing  to  do ;  but  have  you  never  done  anything 
stupid  ? '"  * 

An  analogous  observation  was  made  by  one  of  the 

present  writers.     Together  with  M.  B ,  whose  first 

visit  to  the  Salpetriere  was  made  on  that  day,  we  per- 
formed some  hypnotic  experiments  on  one  of  Charcot's 
hystero-epileptic  patients.  When  the  subject  was  in  a 
state  of  somnambulism,  I  ordered  her  on  awakening  to 

stab  M.  B with  the  pasteboard  knife  I  put  into  her 

hand.     As  soon  as  she  awoke,  she  rushed  towards  him 

and  struck  him  in  the  region  of  the  heart.     M.  B 

feigned  to  fall  down.  I  then  asked  the  subject  why 
she  had  killed  this  man.  She  looked  at  him  fixedly 
for  a  moment,  and  then  replied  with  an  expression 
of  ferocity,  "  He  is  an  old  villain,  and  wished  to  insult 
me."  t 

It  is  evident  that  there  was  in  this  case  no  sub- 
stantial motive  for  the  crime,  nor  had  any  motive  been 
suggested  to  her.  When  the  crime  was  accomplished, 
the  subject  hesitated  for  a  moment  before  assigning  a 
motive ;  her  conscience  was  at  fault,  and  she  questioned 
the  outward  aspect  of  her  victim.     No  great  power  of 

observation  was  necessary  in  order  to  note  M.  B 's 

sprightly  expression  of  countenance,  and  this  was  enough 
to  supply  the  answer.  He  had  not  struck  nor  robbed 
her,  and  since  there  was  no  other  reason  for  stabbing 
him,  an  insult  must  have  been  the  cause,  since  she  would 
not  have  done  such  a  thing  without  a  reason.     It  must 

*  Kichet,  La  M^moire  et  la  personnalitd'  dans  le  8omnanibuli»me  (Eevue 
Philosopliique,  March,  1882). 
t  Ibid. 


292  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

be  remembered  that  epileptic  subjects,  when  they  have 
involuntarily  committed  a  crime  may,  like  the  subjects 
of  suggestion,  not  only  admit  their  guilt,  but  explain  it 
by  more  or  less  rational  motives.  This  is  only  another 
proof  that  experiments  in  hypnotism  are  valuable  in  the 
treatment  of  mental  diseases.*  We  may  add  that  a 
suggested  impulse  resembles  the  irresistible  impulses  of 
some  insane  persons  in  two  important  features:  the 
subject's  anguis]^  when  he  is  restrained  from  accomplish- 
ing the  act,  and  his  relief  when  it  is  accomplished. 

Suggestions  which  are  not  to  be  at  once  acted  upon  are 
possible  in  the  case  of  acts  as  well  as  of  hallucinations. 
Richet  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to  these  experi- 
ments, t     "When  B was  hypnotized,"  he  writes,  "I 

said  to  her :  *  You  will  come  here  on  a  given  day  and  at 
a  given  hour.'  When  she  awoke  she  had  forgotten  these 
words,  and  she  asked  when  I  wished  to  see  her  again. 
I  said :  '  Whenever  you  can  come ;  any  day  next  week.' 
— '  At  what  o'clock  ? ' — '  Whenever  you  please.'  And  she 
came  regularly,  with  surprising  punctuality,  at  the  date 
and  time  indicated  by  the  suggestion.   This  phenomenon 

sometimes  leads  to  absurd  consequences.     A arrived 

one  day  at  the  hour  agreed  upon  during  hypnotism,  and 
the  first  thing  she  said  was:  'I  do  not  know  why  I 
came.  The  weather  is  horrible,  and  I  had  visitors.  I 
had  to  run  to  get  here  in  time,  and  I  cannot  stay. 
I  must  go  back  in  a  few  moments.  It  is  absurd,  since 
I  do  not  understand  why  I  came.  Is  this  another 
phenomenon  of  magnetism  ? ' " 

*  Fere,  Note  pour  servir  a  Vhistoire  des  actes  impulsifs  des  epileptiquet 
(Eevue  de  Medicine,  1885). 

t  Revike  Fhilosophique,  March,  1888. 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS  AND  OF  ACTS.      293 

These  experiments  give  rise  to  the  same  difficulties 
as  the  hallucinations  which  occur  at  a  fixed  date,  and  we 
need  not  go  over  the  question  again.  The  only  point 
peculiar  to  suggestions  of  command  is  that  up  to  the 
moment  which  has  been  fixed,  the  subject  does  not  perform 
the  act  enjoined,  even  when  led  up  to  it  and  reminded  of 
the  order.  Suppose  that  a  subject  is  told  that  at  five 
o'clock  on  the  following  day  he  will  read  page  8  of  this 
book.  On  awaking,  the  book  is  presented  to  him,  open 
at  the  page  just  indicated,  but  it  suggests  nothing  to  him. 
The  suggestion  is  only  realized  at  the  given  hour,  and 
cannot  be  realized  until  that  hour  arrives.* 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  all  these  facts  have  disquiet- 
ing consequences  with  respect  to  the  existence  of  free- 
will. Psychologists  of  the  spiritualist  school  have  long 
regarded  the  sense  of  liberty  with  which  we  all  perform 
a  voluntary  act  as  a  proof  of  free-will.  The  history  of 
suggested  impulses  show  what  is  the  value  of  this  sub- 
jective sense,  which  has  been  exalted  into  an  objective 
proof,  and  which  is  perhaps  only  an  illusion.  Philo- 
sophers will  have  to  ask  themselves  what  confidence  can 
be  placed  in  what  Leibnitz  termed  "  the  lively  internal 
sense  of  freedom,"  since  this  sense  may  be  so  greatly 
deceived.  Spinoza's  profound  remark  on  this  subject 
must  be  remembered:  "The  consciousness  of  free-will 
is  only  ignorance  of  the  causes  of  our  acts."  It  must  be 
admitted  that  these  words  are  perfectly  a])plicable  to 
the  acts  produced  by  hypnotic  suggestion;  the  subject 
believes  himself  to  act  freely,  because  he  has  forgotten 
the  suggestion  by  which  he  is  impelled.  It  may  be  asked 
whether  we  can  reason  from  a  hypnotic  patient  to  a  man 

♦  Beaunis,  Le  Somnamhulisme  provoqutf,  p.  57.    Bailliere,  1886. 


294  ANIMAL  MAGNETISII. 

of  sane  and  normal  mind.  Some  philosophers  may 
accept  this  as  a  mode  of  escape,  and  we  cannot  go  more 
deeply  into  the  question.  But  we  think  that  at  any  rate 
the  experience  of  hypnotism  proves  one  important  fact, 
that  the  testimony  of  our  inner  consciousness  is  not 
infallible. 

We  have  not  yet  dwelt  upon  the  form  in  which  the 
suggestion  is  given.  For  the  most  part  the  act  to  be 
performed  is  simply  indicated  :  "  When  you  awake  you 
will  clap  your  hands."  The  wish  to  perform  the  act 
may  also   be   suggested.      "You   are    very  angry  with 

X ,  and  when  you  awake,  you  intend  to  strike  him." 

A  suggestion  of  incapacity  may  also  be  substituted  for 

the  suggestion  of  will:   "I  order  you  to  strike  X , 

and  however  much  you  resist,  you  will  be  obliged  to 
obey."  In  all  these  cases  the  result  is  the  same,  and  the 
act  suggested  is  performed.  From  the  psychical  point  of 
view  there  is,  however,  a  wide  difference  between  the 
agent  who  performs  an  action  because  he  wishes  it,  and 
the  agent  who  obeys  the  irresistible  will  of  another 
person.  Yet  h3rpnotism  shows  that  this  difference  is 
merely  superficial.  In  both  cases  there  is  what  may  be 
called  in  psychological  terms  the  same  impulse,  and  in 
physiological  terms  the  same  dynamic  state  of  the  motor 
centres.  We  were  confronted  with  a  similar  fact  in 
the  study  of  hallucinations.  Hallucination,  memory,  and 
sensation,  as  we  then  observed,  are  clearly  founded  on 
the  same  physiological  act,  which  takes  place  in  the 
same  region  of  the  cerebrum.  They  are  only  distin- 
guished by  the  secondary  states  of  consciousness  which 
accompany  the  formation  of  the  image.  In  memory,  this 
state  consists  in  the  reasoning  which  localizes  the  image 


SUGGESTIONS   OF   MOVEMENTS  AND  OP   ACTS.      295 

in  the  past.  In  hallucination  and  in  sensation,  these 
states  consist  in  the  reasoning  which  localizes  the  image 
in  the  external  world.  But  these  localizations  in  time 
and  space  are  superadded  acts,  which  are  not  essential 
and  are  often  absent.  We  believe  that  it  is  the  same 
with  volition.  The  impulse  is  the  fundamental  fact, 
around  which  may  be  grouped  the  secondary  states  of 
consciousness  which  make  the  impulse  a  voluntary  or 
involuntary  act,  or  which  assign  to  it  a  given  motive. 
These  are  accessory  and  superadded  phenomena,  not 
integral  parts  of  the  occurrence. 

Finally,  we  must  indicate  the  relation  which  exists 
between  cataleptic  attitudes  and  the  attitudes  produced 
by  a  suggestion  given  during  somnambulism.  By  sug- 
gestion a  subject  may  be  induced  to  maintain  a  given 
attitude  for  some  time,  as  he  does  during  catalepsy. 
This  retention  of  attitudes  under  the  influence  of  an 
idea  cannot  last  indefinitely ;  its  duration  depends  upon 
many  circumstances,  and  chiefly  upon  the  muscular 
strength  of  the  subject,  and  on  the  form  of  the  sug- 
gestion. If  the  subject  is  merely  ordered  to  keep  his 
arm  horizontally  extended,  the  arm  soon  begins  to 
tremble,  and  respiration  becomes  irre|M^r.  In  one 
debilitated  subject  the  trembling  was  very  marked,  and 
the  arm  dropped  in  two  minutes.  But  if  this  subject 
was  told  that  her  arm  was  made  of  wood,  then  the  ex- 
tended arm  did  not  precisely  tremble,  but  was  affected 
by  slow  oscillations  which  moved  the  whole  limb,  and 
it  only  dropped  at  the  end  of  three  minutes.  Con- 
sequently the  attitudes  imposed  on  our  subjects  by 
suggestion  differ  from  those  impressed  upon  them  during 
catalepsy,  a  difference  which  proves  that  the  catalepsy 


296  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

of  these  subjects  is  not  a  state  produced  by  suggestion. 
But  we  do  not  wish  to  assert  that  by  subjecting  patients 
to  repeated  experiments  in  suggestion,  it  miglit  not  be 
possible  to  give  them  attitudes  resembling  those  of  true 
catalepsy. 

III. 

We  have  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  magnet  the 
unilateral  form  of  the  acts  and  movements  suggested 
during  hypnotism,  and  we  have  ascertained  that  these 
unilateral  phenomena  may  be  transferred  like  halluci- 
nations, and  other  physical  symptoms  of  hypnotism.* 

After  hypnotizing  one  of  our  subjects,  we  placed  a 
bust  of  Gall  on  a  table  standing  near.  We  then  sug- 
gested that  she  should  mahe  a  long  nose  at  the  bust 
with  her  left  hand.  A  magnet  was  placed  close  to  her 
right  hand.  On  awaking,  the  subject,  as  soon  as  she 
saw  the  bust,  made  a  loDg  nose  at  it  with  her  left 
hand ;  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  seconds  she  began  again, 
and  repeated  the  gesture  fourteen  times,  always  with 
the  left  hand.  The  latter  movements  were  more  faintly 
executed,  and  the  gesture  was  not  fully  carried  out ;  she 
only  raised  li^  hand  as  high  as  her  mouth,  without 
extendinor  the  fingers.  A  slight  tremulous  motion  then 
began  in  the  right  hand,  and  the  left  hand  remained 
still.  The  subject  appeared  to  be  uneasy,  and  turned 
her  head  from  one  side  to  another;  she  addressed  the 
bust,  saying:  "How  offensive  that  man  is!"  She 
scratched  her  ear  with  the  rigid  hand  and  then  began 
a  series  of  the  same  gestures  as  before  with  that  hand, 

*  Revue  rhilosophique,  January  and  March,  1885, 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS  AND  OF  ACTS.     297 

which  went  on  for  ten  minutes.  She  admitted  that 
it  was  absurd  to  make  such  gestures,  yet  if  she  paused 
for  an  instant,  it  was  only  necessary  for  the  experi- 
menter to  make  a  long  nose  at  the  bust  to  cause  her  to 
resume  them.  We  withdrew  the  magnet,  and  the  action 
was  then  transferred  to  the  left  hand,  with  the  same 
characteristics  as  before.  We  gave  the  subject  a  piece 
of  work  to  employ  her  hands,  but  she  laid  it  down  at 
regular  intervals  of  three  or  four  seconds,  in  order  to 
make  a  long  nose.  From  time  to  time  she  complained  of 
pain,  which  oscillated  from  one  side  of  the  head  to  the 
other. 

This  is  an  instance  of  a  transferred  act,  which  was 
suggested  during  somnambulism,  and  yet  had  all  the 
appearance  of  being  spontaneous.  The  subject  invented 
specious  reasons  to  explain  her  conduct ;  she  said  that 
the  bust  was  offensive,  and  believed  that  she  made  a 
long  nose  at  it  for  this  reason.  As  we  have  observed, 
when  she  paused,  it  was  only  necessary  to  imitate  the 
gesture  in  order  to  re- charge  the  subject,  and  make  her 
resume  the  insult.  This  proves  the  force  of  example, 
or  rather,  the  influence  of  the  representation  of  the 
movement  on  the  movement. 

The  ensuing  experiment  defines  the  result  of  the 
transference,  and  shows  that  the  transferred  act  is  sym- 
metrical with  the  suggested  act.  We  impressed  on  a 
hypnotized  subject  the  idea  of  setting  down  figures  in 
the  ordinary  way,  with  her  right  hand,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  magnet  was  concealed  near  her  left  hand.  On 
awaking,  she  wrote  as  far  as  the  figure  12  with  her 
right  hand,  then  she  hesitated,  changed  the  pen  to  her 
left  hand,  and  went  on  writing.     The   figures  she  set 


298  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

down  were  correct  when  seen  in  a  mirror,  so  that  the 
movements  executed  with  the  left  hand  were  sym- 
metrical with  those  made  with  the  right  hand.  The 
magnet  had  therefore  transferred  the  action.  It  should 
be  observed  that  while  she  was  writing  with  the  left 
hand,  she  was  unable  to  use  the  right;  she  was  as  it 
were  left-handed  with  her  right  hand. 

■pi<r,  13. — Experiment  on  June  16, 1884.    Magnetic  transfer  of  impulse 
to  write. 

Fig.  13  represents  the  first  experiment  of  the  transfer 
of  writing.  These  figures  were  set  down  with  the  left 
hand.     Only  the  three  first  figures  are  reversed. 

Fig.  14. — Experiment  of  November  29,  1884.     Magnetic  transfer 
of  impulse  of  writing. 

Fig.  14  represents  a  subsequent  experiment.  The 
subject  had  improved;  the  first  line  of  figures  was 
written  with  the  right  hand,  and  that  below  with  the 
left,  set  down  from  left  to  right.  The  figure  7  is  absent, 
because  it  had  been  suppressed  by  suggestion  in  a 
previous  experiment.  The  reversed  writing  produced 
by  the  magnet  demands  attention.     This  phenomenon 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS  AND  OF  ACTS.     299 

is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  magnet  has  transferred  the 
impulse  to  set  down  figures  from  right  to  left  and 
reversed  writing  is  the  normal  writing  of  the  left  hand. 
This  fact  has  been  proved  by  many  experiments. 

The  transfer  of  verbal  impulse,  which  is  in  fact  only 
a  variety  of  the  motor  impulse,  may  also  be  effected. 
We  suggested  to  a  subject  that  she  should  count  aloud, 
up  to  100.  She  began  to  count  as  soon  as  she  awoke. 
A  ten-forked  magnet  was  placed  near  her  right  arm. 
When  she  got  to  72  she  paused,  hesitated,  could  not 
go  on  counting,  and  at  the  end  of  a  minute  she  was 
unable  to  speak  at  all.  Yet  she  could  move  her  tongue, 
and  understand  what  was  said  to  her.  After  ten  minutes 
had  elapsed,  the  magnet  was  applied  to  her  left  side ;  in 
about  two  minutes  the  left  arm  began  to  tremble  and 
the  power  of  speech  returned. 

Finally,  let  us  note  the  transfer  of  resolutions,  that  is, 

,of  proposed,  but  unfulfilled  acts.     We   said   to   X 

when  under  somnambulism  :  "  Here  is  the  key  of  the 
wardrobe  at  the  end  of  the  room.  When  we  offer  you 
the  key,  you  will  take  it  in  your  right  hand  ;  you  will 
open  the  drawer,  take  out  a  box,  close  the  drawer,  and 

finally  give  the  box  to  B :  all  with  the  right  hand." 

On  awaking  the  subject,  a  magnet  was  placed  near  her 

right  fore-arm.     After  a  few  moments  X complained 

of  pain  in  the  right  parietal  region ;  pain  which  traversed 
the  head  and  passed  into  the  same  region  on  the  left.  A 
minute  afterwards  we  offered  her  the  key ;  she  took  it 
in  her  left  hand,  walked  to  the  wardrobe  and  attempted 
to  open  it  with  her  right  hand,  but  was  unable  to  do  so. 
She  had  recourse  to  her  left  hand  in  order  to  open  the 
drawer,  and  she  went  through  the  same  process  before 


800  ANIMAL  MAG>JETISM. 

taking  the  box ;  she  alternately  extended  the  right  and 
left  hand,  and  finally  made  use  of  the  latter.  She  closed 
the  drawer,  after  the  same  hesitation  with  the  left  hand, 

came  back  with  the  box,  stood  before  B ,  and  said, 

"  Here  is  the  box,  sir,"  and  offered  it  to  him  with  her 
left  hand. 

We  repeated  tliis  experiment  a  second  time,  allowing 
five  minutes  to  intervene  before  presenting  the  key,  so 
that  the  transfer  might  be  completely  efiected.  In  this 
case  the  subject  took  the  key  in  her  left  hand  without 
the  slightest  hesitation,  she  opened  the  drawer,  took  out 

the  box,  closed  the  drawer  and  gave  the  box  to  B 

without  any  attempt  to  use  the  right  hand. 

We  have  here  a  peculiar  kind  of  transfer.  There  is  a 
resolution  to  perform  an  act,  which  is  in  some  sense 
present  in  the  subject's  cerebral  cells.  This  virtual  act 
is  susceptible  of  transference,  precisely  like  an  act  which 
is  actually  accomplished,  and  this  clearly  shows  that  it 
has  likewise  a  material  substratum.  We  should  also 
observe  the  phenomenon  of  pain  which  accompanies  the 
transfer ;  a  pain  which  is  not  diff*used  but  local,  and 
according  to  the  theories  of  cranio-cerebral  topography 
alread}^  established  by  one  of  the  present  writers,  the 
pain  is  localized  in  the  ascending  frontal  and  parietal 
convolutions,  in  the  motor  centres  of  the  limbs.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  pain  which  accompanies  the 
transfer  of  an  act  has  the  same  localization.  This  resem- 
blance seems  to  show  that  the  resolution  to  perform  an 
act  with  a  given  limb,  with  the  right  arm  for  example, 
corresponds  with  a  physiological  process  which  has  the 
sarae  site  as  the  movement  of  the  arm.  The  potential 
act — and  a  resolution  to  act  is  nothinpr  else — seems  to 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS   AND   OF   ACTS.      301 

have  the  same  cerebral  centre  as  the  act  which  is  really 
performed.  It  must  be  understood  that  we  give  this 
interpretation  with  all  reserve,  and  that  it  is  merely  an 
hypothesis. 

Finally,  the  magnet  exerts  its  special  action  on 
spontaneous  phenomena,  which  have  not  merely  the 
appearance  of  being  freely  displayed,  but  are  really 
voluntary,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  In  fact 
transference  may  be  effected  without  the  hypnotic  sleep 
or  suggestion.  The  subject  is  merely  requested  to  per- 
form a  given  act,  and  the  application  of  the  magnet  will 
compel  him  to  perform  a  second  act,  symmetrical  with 
the  former.  We  give  the  experiment  without  further 
comment. 

X was  perfectly  awake,  and  had  not  been  hyp- 
notized for  several  days.  We  begged  her  to  rest  her 
right  elbow  on  the  table,  close  to  a  concealed  magnet. 
She  asked  the  reason,  and  we  made  the  pretext  of  a  wish 
to  take  her  portrait,  to  which  she  agreed.  After  two  or 
three  minutes,  she  brought  her  right  arm  close  to  her 
body,  saying  that  she  was  tired  and  that  her  arm  was 
numb.  She  seemed  uncertain  for  a  moment,  and  looked 
to  the  right  and  left.  We  begged  her  to  resume  her 
position,  and  she  said  she  had  forgotten  what  it  was ;  in 
another  minute  she  rested  her  left  elbow  on  a  chair  she 
had  drawn  up,  in  a  position  symmetrical  to  the  former 
one.  When  the  magnet  was  withdrawn,  consecutive 
oscillations  were  observed. 

The  magnet  will  likewise  effect  a  bilateral  act :  the 

result  differs  according  to  the  simply  automatic  character 

of  this  act,  or   its  correspondence  with   the   emotional 

state;  in   the   former   case  it  produces  what  we   have 

14 


302  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

called  a  motor  polarization,  and  in  the  second  case  an 
emotional  polarization. 

We  first  give  an  example  of  motor  polarization.  The 
idea  is  suggested  to  a  subject  that  he  should  move  both 
his  hands  as  if  rolling  a  ball.  While  he  is  continuing 
this  action,  a  magnet  is  brought  close  to  the  nape  of  the 
neck.  After  a  while  both  hands  begin  to  tremble ;  the 
subject  tries  to  roll  his  fingers  without  being  able  to  do 
so,  and  seems  at  a  loss  what  to  do.  The  suggested  im- 
pulse is  succeeded  by  a  corresponding  paralysis.  Many 
other  experiments  might  be  cited,  in  which  the  impulse 
is  likewise  changed  into  paralysis. 

When  motor  polarization  is  compared  with  sensory 
polarization,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are  at  once 
alike  and  unlike.  When  the  vision  of  the  colour  red 
is  polarized,  three  effects  are  produced :  suppression  of 
this  vision,  paralysis,  as  far  as  red  is  concerned,  and 
the  subjective  consciousness  of  the  complementary 
colour,  green.  When  an  automatic  movement  is  polarized 
the  two  effects  of  suppression  and  of  paralysis  are 
indeed  produced,  but  the  production  of  an  inverse,  com- 
plementary phenomenon  corresponding  with  the  colour 
green,  appears  to  be  absent.  This  gap  is  more  apparent 
than  real,  and  we  shall  presently  attempt  to  fill  it. 

We  must  now  give  an  instance  of  emotional  polari- 
zation.    We  impressed  the  idea  on  a  hypnotized  subject 

that  she  would  on  awaking  feel  a  desire  to  strike  F . 

A  magnet  was  placed  near  her  right  foot.  As  soon  as 
she  awoke,  she  looked  uneasily  at  F— — ',  got  up  suddenly, 
and  tried  to  give  him  a  slap  which  he  had  just  time  to 
ward  off.  "  I  do  not  know  why,"  she  said  passionately, 
•'  but  I  feel  a  desire  to  strike  him,"  and  indeed  she  tried 


SUGGESTIONS  OF  MOVEMENTS  AND  OP    ACTS.      303 

hard  to  do  so.  In  another  moment  her  countenance- 
changed,  she  assumed  a  gentle  and  supplicating  ex- 
pression, threw  herself  on  the  experimenter,  saying,  "  I 
want  to  embrace  him,"  and  it  was  necessary  to  use  force 
to  restrain  her  impulse.  Consecutive  oscillations  were 
then  observed. 

In  this  last  experiment,  the  magnet  directly  polarized 
the  suggested  emotion,  which  in  its  transformation  led 
to  a  fresh  series  of  acts.  This  is  an  emotional,  not  a 
motor  polarization,  a  distinction  which  should  be  clearly 
understood.  The  magnet,  if  it  acted  solely  on  a  motor 
phenomenon,  such  as  the  act  of  striking,  would  not 
substitute  for  it  phenomena  of  another  order,  such  as  the 
act  of  embracing :  for  the  opposition  of  these  two  acts  is 
due  to  the  difference  in  the  emotion  they  express,  and 
not  to  the  difference  in  their  motor  character.  The  state 
of  emotion  is  therefore  the  pivot  on  which  the  experi- 
ment turns. 

The  analysis  of  this  emotional  polarization  will  show 
that  it  consists  of  the  three  elements  mentioned  above  : 
suppression,  paralysis,  and  manifestation  of  the  converse 
state.  When  we  compare  these  facts  with  those  ob- 
tained from  the  polarization  of  colours,  we  shall  see  that 
there  are  complementary  emotions,  just  as  there  are  com- 
plementary colours.* 

*  For  further  details,  see  Revue  Philosophique,  March,  1885.  Bianclii 
and  Sommer  (Archivio  di  psichiairia^  scienze  penali,  etc.,  vol.  vil.  p.  387; 
1886)  were  successful  in  reproducing  some  of  the  phenomena  of  psychical 
polarization  which  were  discovered  by  the  present  writers. 


304  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 


CHAPTEK  XL 

PARALYSIS   BY  SUGGESTION  :   ANAESTHESIA. 

The  study  of  the  different  forms  of  paralysis  by  sugges- 
tion opens  a  perfectly  new  horizon  to  psychology,  which 
is  not  bound  by  the  mental  laws  hitherto  established, 
and  refuses  to  be  included  within  the  too  restricted  limits 
of  its  classification.  If  you  consult  one  of  the  classic 
works  on  psychology,  you  will  find  in  it  the  three  great 
divisions  of  emotion,  intelligence,  and  will,  and  in  none 
of  these  does  psychical  paralysis  find  a  place.  In  fact 
the  very  name  of  psychical  paralysis  is  new.  Up  to  this 
time  it  has  only  been  used  metaphorically,  and  the  notion 
of  this  fact  has  only  been  slightly  indicated  by  writers 
on  the  subject.  The  experimental  method  employed  in 
hypnotism  was  necessary  to  reveal  the  existence  and 
extent  of  paralysis  by  suggestion.  We  are  now  aware 
that  it  may  affect  all  the  parts  of  the  psychical  mechanism, 
sensation,  imagination,  memory,  reason,  will,  motor  power, 
etc. ;  it  is,  in  a  word,  co-extensive  with  the  intelligence. 
Classical  psychology,  which  does  not  mention  psychical 
paralysis,  omits  half  the  history  of  the  mind:  it  describes 
the  active,  impulsive  forms  of  the  intelligence,  without 
taking  note  of  the  passive,  negative  forms,  which  are 
equally  numerous;  it  represents  that  side  of  the  mind 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  ANESTHESIA.       305 

on  which  the  light  falls,  without  taking  note  of  the  side 
in  shadow. 

The  course  of  this  work  has  repeatedly  brought  us 
in  contact  with  paralysis  by  suggestion.  We  have  seen 
that  when  an  sesthesiogen  acts  upon  a  bilateral  halluci- 
nation, the  latter  is  destroyed,  and  that  it  is  succeeded  by 
a  corresponding  ansesthesia.  So,  again,  when  a  bilateral 
movement  is  subjected  to  magnetic  action,  the  corre- 
sponding paralysis  is  produced.  It  may  also  be  observed 
that  when  suggestion  puts  an  end  to  an  hallucination  or 
an  act,  these  active  phenomena  give  place  on  disappear- 
ing to  a  paralysis  representing  their  negative  form.  We 
have  now  to  consider  these  forms  of  paralysis,  as  they 
are  displayed  in  consequence  of  a  direct  suggestion. 

Sensibility  can  be  destroyed  by  suggestion.  This 
fa,ct  of  anaesthesia  by  suggestion  has  long  been  known, 
and  has  sometimes  been  employed  in  cases  of  surgical 
operations.  One  of  the  present  writers  was  able,  by 
means  of  suggestion,  to  open  an  abcess,  seated  in  the 
axilla,  without  causing  pain.  There  is  nothing  more 
surprising  than  this  power  of  destroying  pain  by  sug- 
gestion. The  anaesthesia  may  be  such  as  to  lead  the 
subject  to  believe  that  the  limb  is  gone ;  it  may  affect, 
not  merely  the  general  sensibility  of  the  body  but  the 
special  senses.  It  would  be  easy  to  render  some  subjects 
perfectly  blind  by  suggestion,  but  the  operator  must 
prudently  refrain  from  such  serious  experiments,  lest  he 
should  be  unable  to  put  an  end  to  their  results. 

We  propose  to  make  a  special  study  of  systematic 
anaesthesia,  erroneously  termed  by  Bernheim  and  some 
other  writers  negative  hallucinations. 

Since  the  definition  of  systematic  anaesthesia  presents 


306  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

pecial  diflficulties,  it  seems  well  to  defer  it,  and  pro- 
visionally to  substitute  for  it  as  complete  a  description 
as  possible.     We  suggested  to  a  hypnotized  subject  that 

when  she  awoke  she  would  be  unable  to  see  F ,  but 

that  she  would  continue  to  hear  his  voice.     When  she 

awoke,  F placed  himself  before  her,  but  she  did  not 

look  at  him,  and  when  he  extended  his  hand,  there  was 
no  corresponding  gesture  on  her  side.  She  remained 
quietly  seated  in  the  chair  in  which  she  had  been  sleep- 
ing, and  we  sat  waiting  beside  her.     After  a  while,  the 

subject  expressed  surprise  at  no  longer  seeing  F , 

who  had  been  in  the  laboratory,  and  she  asked  what  had 
become  of  him.     We  replied,  "He  has  gone  out;  you 

may  return  to  your  room."     F placed  himself  before 

the  door.  The  subject  arose,  said  good  morning,  and 
went  towards  it.     Just  as  she  was  about  to  lay  hold  of 

the  handle,  she  knocked  up  against  F ,  whom  she 

was  unable  to  see.  This  unexpected  shock  made  her 
start ;  she  tried  to  go  on  again,  but  on  encountering  the 
same  invisible  and  inexplicable  resistance,  she  began  to 
be  afraid,  and  refused  to  go  near  the  door. 

We  next  took  up  a  hat,  and  showed  it  to  the  subject. 
She  saw  it  quite  well,  and  touched  it  in  order  to  satisfy 
herself  that  it  was  really  there.     We  then  placed  it  on 

F 's  head,  and  words  cannot  express  the  subject's 

surprise,  since  it  appeared  to  her  that  the  hat  was 
suspended  in  the  air.     Her  surprise  was  at  its  height 

when  F took  off  the  hat  and  saluted  her  with  it 

several  times ;  she  saw  the  hat,  without  any  support, 
describing  curves  in  the  air.  She  declared  that  it  was 
de  la  physique,  and  supposed  that  the  hat  was  suspended 
by  a  string ;  she  even  got  upon  a  chair  to  try  and  touch 


PARALYSIS  BY   SUGGESTION:  ANAESTHESIA.      307 

this  string,  which  she  was  unable  to  find.     We  then  took 

a  cloak  and  handed  it  to  F ,  who  put  it  on.     The 

subject  looked  at  it  fixedly  with  a  bewildered  air,  since 
she  saw  it  moving  about  and  assuming  the  form  of  a 
person.  "  It  is/'  she  said,  "  like  a  hollow  puppet."  At 
our  command  the  furniture  was  moved  about  and  noisily 
rolled  from  one  end  of  the  room  to  the  other — they  were, 

in  fact,  displaced  by  the  invisible  F ;  the  tables  and 

chairs  were  overturned,  and  then  the  chaos  was  succeeded 
by  order.  The  different  objects  were  replaced,  the  dis- 
jointed bones  of  a  skull,  which  had  been  scattered  on  the 
floor  were  joined  together  again ;  a  purse  opened  of  itself, 
and  gold  and  silver  coins  fell  from  it. 

We  then  induced  the  subject  to  sit  down  again,  and 
we  placed  ourselves  beside  her  chair,  in  order  to  subject 
her  to  experiments  of  a  quieter  nature.  We  shall  see 
how  she  managed  to  explain  certain  facts,  rendered 
inexplicable  by  her  inability  to  see  F .  That  gentle- 
man placed  himself  behind  her,  and  while  she  was 
quietly  conversing  with  us,  he  touched  her  nose,  cheeks, 
forehead,  or  chin.  Each  time  the  subject  put  her  hand 
to  her  face  in  a  natural  way,  and  without  any  appear- 
ance of  alarm.  We  asked  why  she  put  her  hand  to 
her  face,  and  she  replied  that  it  itched,  or  was  painful, 
and  she  therefore  scratched  it.  Her  tranquil  assurance 
was  extremely  curious.  We  begged  her  to  strike  out 
violently  into  space,  and  at  the  moment  she  raised  her 

arm  it  was  arrested  by  F .     We  asked  what  was  the 

matter,  and  she  replied  that  her  arm  was  affected  by 
cramp.  She  was,  therefore,  never  at  a  loss ;  she  invariably 
explained  everything,  however  insuflicient  the  explana- 
tion might  be.     This  need  of  explanation,  which  exists 


308  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

in  tlie  normal  state,  is  carried  to  excess  in  the  experi- 
ments produced  by  suggestion. 

Such  are  the  main  lines  of  the  phenomenon  of 
systematic  anaesthesia,  and  it  may  be  well  to  insist  on 
some  points  of  this  description.  With  respect  to  the 
extent  of  the  systematic  anaesthesia,  it  should  be  said 
that  when  a  small  object,  such  as  a  pencil,  is  rendered 
invisible,  it  is  this  object  alone  which  the  subject  is 
unable  to  see.  The  limits  of  anaesthesia  are  fixed,  its 
extent  invariable.  This  is  not  the  case  when  the  per- 
ception of  a  more  complex  object  is  destroyed;  the 
anaesthesia  then  affects  all  which  is  indirectly  connected 
with  the  object.  If  suggestion  has  rendered  a  purse  in- 
visible, the  subject  may  fail  to  see  the  coins  which  issue 
from  it.  When  it  is  a  person  who  is  rendered  invisible, 
the  subject  cannot  see  the  person,  nor  the  clothes  he 
wears,  nor — which  is  more  curious — the  things  he  takes 
out  of  his  pocket,  a  handkerchief,  watch,  or  key.  But 
these  results  are  very  variable,  and  differ  with  diffe- 
rent subjects.  Although  the  perception  of  the  object  is 
destroyed,  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  as  though  it  were  non- 
existent, for  its  presence  continues  to  be  displayed  by 
certain  signs.  For  instance,  when  it  has  been  suggested 
to  the  subject  that  he  cannot  see  the  light,  the  pupils 
continue  to  react  when  his  eyes  are  turned  to  the 
window.  So,  again,  we  have  seen  that  when  suggestion 
has  rendered  the  magnet  invisible,  transference  and  pola- 
rization can  be  effected  in  some  subjects.  And  again,  a 
person  rendered  invisible  by  suggestion  may  hypnotize 
a  subject  by  means  of  passes.  Moreover,  the  suppressed 
object  may  continue  to  act  on  the  conscious  sensibility 
of  the  subject.     Suppose  that  a  scent-bottle  is  rendered 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  ANAESTHESIA.       809 

invisible,  and  the  subject  is  told :  '*  You  will  no  longer 
see  this  bottle ;  your  fingers  will  not  feel  it ;  when  you 
strike  it,  it  will  not  sound ;  it  will  have  no  existence  for 
you."  The  subject  receives  the  scent-bottle  on  awaking, 
and  it  is  true  that  he  does  not  see  it,  nor  feel  its  contact. 
But  an  intelligent  subject  will  soon  perceive  that  there 
is  something  in  his  hands,  and  be  conscious  of  resistance 
w^hen  he  tries  to  put  them  together.  One  of  our  subjects, 
after  studying  the  nature  of  this  resistance,  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  object  was  round,  and  this  offers  a 
curious  analysis  of  the  sense  of  touch,  and  of  the  muscular 
sense. 

In  order  to  complete  the  description,  we  should 
ascertain  whether  the  object  which  has  become  invisible 
conceals  what   is  placed  behind  it.     This   is  sometimes 

the   case.      If  F puts  on  a  pince-nez  when   he  is 

invisible,  and  then  turns  his  back  on  the  subject,  she 
can  no  longer  see  the  pince-nez.  But  generally  the 
invisible  object  does  not  prevent  the  subject  from  seeing 
the  things  beyond  it  in  the  same  line  of  vision.  It  does 
not  cause  an  apparent  gap  in  the  field  of  vision.  The 
subject  believes  that  he  sees  the  hidden  object  as  well  as 

the  rest.    When  F stands  before  the  door,  the  subject 

maintains  that  she  still  sees  its  handle,  and  will  try  to 
take  hold  of  it.  It  is  probable  that  she  spontaneously 
creates  an  hallucination  in  order  to  fill  up  the  gap  which 
the  invisible  object  has  produced  in  her  field  of  vision. 
This  efiiect  of  auto-suggestion  recalls  a  well-know^n 
physiological  fact — the  normal  existence  in  the  field,  of 
vision  of  a  gap  or  blind  spot,  corresponding  with  the 
entrance  of  the  optic  nerve.  The  existence  of  this  spot  is 
only  ascertained  by  means  of  experiments,  since  it  is  filled 


310  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

up  unconsciously  during  normal  vision.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  add  that,  in  spite  of  appearances  to  the 
contrary,  the  invisible  object  really  acts  as  a  screen,  and 
that  the  subject  cannot  see  what  is  on  the  other  side  of 

it.     If  we  stand  behind  F when  he  is  invisible,  the 

subject  maintains  that  she  can  still  see  us,  but  she  cannot 
accurately  describe  our  gestures. 

We  must  conclude  this  superficial  description  of 
systematic  anaesthesia  by  proving  its  reality,  since  all 
the  preceding  phenomena  might  result  from  adroit  simu- 
lation ;  they  do  not  include  any  of  the  material,  objective 
characteristics  which  completely  exclude  the  suspicion  of 
fraud.  But  there  is  a  mode  of  ascertaining  the  good  faith 
of  the  subject.  We  know  that  the  deafening  noise  of 
a  Chinese  gong  produces  catalepsy  in  some  hypnotic 
subjects,  and  among  these  must  be  included  two  who 
were  submitted  to  our  observation.  During  the  hypnotic 
sleep  we  impressed  upon  them  the  idea  that  they  would 
no  longer  see  the  gong  nor  its  sounder  on  awaking,  and 
that  they  would  be  unable  to  hear  its  noise.  In  other 
words,  we  suggested  a  systematic  anaesthesia,  of  which 
the  gong  was  the  object.  When  they  awoke,  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  anaesthesia  had  been  ascertained,  the 
gong  was  brought  close  to  their  ears,  which  they  per- 
mitted without  displaying  the  terror  it  habitually  excited, 
and  it  was  violently  sounded.  No  catalepsy  ensued, 
and  in  each  case  the  subject  did  not  flinch.  She  made  a 
slight  movement  of  surprise,  and  said  that  she  had  heard 
something  like  a  gust  of  wind  in  the  chimney.  The 
counter-proof  was  immediately  afforded  by  again  hypno- 
tizing the  subject  and  restoring  to  her  the  perception  of  the 
instrument.     A  much  fainter  stroke  then  threw  her  into 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  ANESTHESIA.       311 

a  profound  catalepsy.  In  a  fresh  experiment  we  destroyed 
the  existence  of  the  gong,  and  for  eleven  successive  days 
its  eifects  were  absolutely  negative,  after  which  the  effect 
of  the  suggestion  spontaneously  disappeared. 

Another  experiment  indicates  that  these  forms  of 
anaesthesia  are  genuine.  One  of  our  subjects  had,  on 
each  side  of  the  mammary  regions,  an  hysterogenic 
zone,  pressure  on  which  immediately  produced  an 
hysterical  attack.  One  of  the  present  writers  rendered 
himself  invisible  by  suggestion,  and  at  the  same  time 
destroyed  the  sensation  of  contact  on  his  approach.  A 
strong  pressure  of  the  hysterogenic  zones  then  failed 
to  produce  any  attack  in  the  subject,  nor  did  she  make 
any  effort  to  repel  the  experimenter :  she  only  complained 
of  a  vague  sense  of  oppression.  On  the  other  hand,  she 
recoiled  in  terror  when  another  person  put  his  hand 
near  these  zones. 

The  researches  we  have  made  into  the  duration  of 
systematic  anaesthesia  are  still  incomplete.  It  is  often 
maintained  for  several  days.  In  the  case  of  our  hysterical 
patients,  the  effect  .of  the  suggestion  is  destroyed  by  an 
attack.  We  have,  however,  repeatedly  observed  instances 
of  anaesthesia  with  reference  to  small  objects,  such  as 
watches,  pencils,  etc.,  which  lasted  for  several  months. 
Their  mode  of  disappearance  is  remarkable.  When  a 
person  has  been  rendered  invisible,  the  subject  does  not 
see  nor  recognize  him,  but  as  time  goes  on  the  anaesthesia 
gradually  becomes  fainter.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  when 
the  subject  begins  to  see  the  person  in  question,  she  fails 
to  recognize  him,  and  the  act  of  recognition  only  occurs 

later,  by  a  species  of  ascendant  evolution.     Thus  F , 

who  was  the  object  of  experiment  in  the  observations 


312  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM 

we  have  cited,  was  visible  to  the  subject  after  the  lapse 
of  three  or  four  days,  but  she  did  not  recognize  him  : 
she  took  him  for  a  stranger  who  had  come  to  see  the 
Salpetriere.  We  have  noticed  elsewhere  the  physio- 
logical importance  of  these  phenomena.* 

We  recently  observed  the  converse  of  the  preceding 

fact  in  the  case  of  a  subject  named  C ,  who  was 

subjected  to  an  experiment  in  ansesthesia  for  the  first 
time.  It  was  suggested  to  her  during  somnambulism 
that  when  she  awoke  she  would  no  lonsrer  see  D , 


one  of  the  persons  present,  whose  name  she  knew.  When 
she  awoke  she  saw,  but  did  not  recognize  him,  and  at 
the  same  time  she  had  forgotten  her  own  name  and 
identity.   This  subject  had  received,  a  few  minutes  before, 

the  hallucination  of  D 's  portrait  on  a  blank  card. 

She  was  now  made  to  look  at  the  card,  and  after 
repeatedly   comparing    the    portrait   with    its   original, 

she  became   able   to  recognize  D .     The  systematic 

ansesthesia  was  therefore  destroyed  by  a  recollection, 
just  as  in  some  cases  paralysis  may  be  destroyed  by 
recalling  the  movement  to  mind. 

It  would  be  an  error  to  suppose  that  systematic 
ansesthesia  consists  solely  in  a  sensory  disturbance.  In 
the  case  of  our  subjects  we  have  often  found  that  this 
suggested  disturbance  readily  serves  as  the  point  of 
departure  for  delirium.     Thus,  we  once  suggested  to  an 

hypnotic  subject  that  she  would  cease  to  see  F ,  but 

would  continue  to  hear  his  voice.  On  awakinor  the 
subject  heard  the  voice  of  an  invisible  person,  and  looked 
about  the  room  to  discover  the  cause  of  this  singular 
phenomenon,  asking  us  about  it  with  some  uneasiness. 

*  Binet,  La  psychologie  du  raisonnement.    Paris,  1S86. 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  ANESTHESIA.       313 

We  said  jestingly,  "F is  dead,  and  it  is  his  ghost 

which  speaks  to  you."  The  subject  is  intelligent,  and  in 
her  normal  state  she  would  probably  have  taken  the  jest 
at  its  true  value;  but  she  was  dominated  by  the  sug- 
gestion of  aniesthesia,  and  readily  accepted  the  explana- 
tion.    When  F spoke   again  he   said  that   he   had 

died  the  night  before,  and  that  his  body  had  been  taken 
to  the  post-mortem  room.  The  subject  clasped  her  hands 
with  a  sad  expression,  and  asked  when  he  was  to  be 
buried,  as  she  wished  to  be  present  at  the  religious 
service.     "  Poor  young  man  !  "  she  said  ;  "  he  was  not  a 

bad  man."     F ,  wishing  to  see  how  far  her  credulity 

would  go,  uttered  groans,  and  complained  of  the  autopsy 
of  his  body  which  was  going  on.  The  scene  then  became 
tragic,  for  the  emotion  of  the  subject  caused  her  to  fall 
backwards  in  an  incipient  attack  of  hysteria,  which  we 
promptly  arrested  by  ovarian  compression.  Tliis  ex- 
periment shows  that  when  a  subject  remains  under  the 
influence  of  a  suggestion  after  awaking,  he  has  not, 
whatever  be  the  appearances  to  the  contrary,  returned 
to  his  normal  state.  The  suggestion  of  anaesthesia  has 
disturbed  the  intelligence,  and  exerts  a  suspensory  action 
on  the  judgment  and  on  the  critical  sense. 

In  order  to  understand  the  nature  of  systematic 
anaesthesia,  it  is  necessary  to  compare  it  with  the 
spontaneous  phenomena  of  hysteria,  which  resemble  it. 
We  frequently  meet  with  paralysis  of  the  senses  in  hys- 
terical patients.  There  is  one  remarkable  characteristic  of 
hysterical  anaesthesia,  whether  suggested  or  spontaneous, 
and  this  is  especially  apparent  in  the  anaesthesia  with 
respect  to  colour,  or  achromatopsia. 

Suppose  that  the  left  eye  of  an  hysterical  subject 


314  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

displays  complete  achromatopsia,  extending  to  all  colours. 
If  a  square  of  red  is  shown  to  her,  while  her  right  eye  is 
closed,  this  square  appears  to  her  to  be  black  or  grey, 
and  she  has  no  conscious  perception  of  red.  Yet  the  red 
ray  emitted  by  the  object  still  exerts  its  special  action 
on  the  visual  centre  of  the  subject,  for  if  she  is  requested 
to  close  the  right  eye  and  to  look  fixedly  for  a  moment 
at  the  red  square  which  appears  to  her  to  be  grey,  she 
will  after  a  while  obtain  the  after-image  of  a  green 
square.  Thus  the  red,  which  the  patient  does  not  see,  has 
enabled  her  to  see  the  complementary  colour,  green,  and, 
in  spite  of  her  achromatopsia,  the  colours  produce  correct 
after-images.  This  curious  experiment,  which  was  per- 
formed several  years  ago  by  Regnard,  may  be' varied  in 
many  ways.  For  instance,  it  has  been  ascertained  that, 
even  when  the  subject  is  colour-blind,  the  invisible  red, 
when  mixed  with  a  visible  green,  produces  white,  etc. 
From  these  facts  Regnard  drew  the  probable  conclusion 
that  hysterical  achromatopsia  does  not,  as  the  theory  of 
Helmholtz  asserts,  result  from  a  lesion  of  the  elements 
of  the  retina,  but  from  a  modification  of  the  centre  of 
vision. 

In  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  achromatopsia  of 
suggestion  displayed  the  same  characteristics  as  true 
achromatopsia,  we  made  a  square  of  red  paper  invisible ; 
we  then  requested  the  subject  to  look  fixedly  at  its  centre, 
and  she  saw  the  after-image  of  a  green  square.  A 
repetition  of  the  experiment  with  other  colours  always 
afforded   corresponding   results.*     The   mixture   of  un- 

*  We  may  observe  in  passing  that  in  this  anesthesia  by  suggestion,  the 
consecutive  image  retains  the  form  of  the  actual  image  ;  a  red  cross  pro- 
duces the  subjective  image  of  a  green  cross.     On  the  other  hand,  in  the 


PAEALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION  :  ANESTHESIA.      315 

porceived  colours  produced  the  same  tints  as  if  their 
components  were  perceptible.  In  short,  we  ascertained 
that,  notwithstanding  their  diversity  of  origin,  the  charac- 
teristics of  suggested  and  of  spontaneous  achromatopsia 
were  the  same.  The  paralysis  was  of  the  same  nature. 
It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  when  anaesthesia  is  suggested 
in  the  case  of  colours,  the  coloured  ray  reaches  and  pene- 
trates the  sensory  centre,  since  it  produces  a  sensation 
of  the  complementary  colour.  Suggested  achromatopsia 
is  a  central,  not  a  peripheral  disturbance. 

An  experiment  of  another  kind  leads  to  the  same 
conclusion.  A  blank  card  is  shown  to  the  subject,  and 
she  is  told  that  she  will  not  see  what  is  placed  upon  it. 
On  awaking,  the  subject's  attention  is  drawn  to  a  square 
of  blue  paper,  placed  upon  the  card,  which,  however,  still 
appears  to  her  to  be  blank.  Yet  it  may  be  ascertained 
that  although  not  consciously  perceived  by  the  subject, 
her  brain,  like  a  photographic  plate,  has  registered  all 
the  modifications  of  the  card,  and  this  negative  proof 
may  subsequently  be  developed  and  rendered  visible. 
In  other  words,  the  subject  may  receiv'e  a  conscious  recol- 
lection of  the  blue  square  laid  upon  the  card.  This  is  most 
easily  effected  by  the  magnet.  The  subject  is  invited  to 
picture  to  herself  the  colour  of  the  card,  and  at  first  it 
appears  to  her  to  be  white,  but  under  the  influence  of 
magnetization  the  centre  of  the  card  becomes  darker,  and 
she  finally  declares  that  she  sees  on  it  a  small  blue  square. 

The  anaesthesia  by  suggestion  which  we  are  now  con- 
case  of  anaesthesia  produced  by  the  application  of  the  magnet,  the  after- 
image is  disfigured ;  a  blank  space  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  surrounded 
by  green,  succeeds  to  the  vision  of  a  red  cross.  We  are  ignorant  of 
the  causes  of  these  differences. 


316  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

sideling  displays  one  important  feature — systematization. 
The  spontaneous  anaesthesia  of  hysteria  is  in  some  sense 
diffuse.  When  a  patient  is  unable  to  see  the  colour  red, 
she  is  unable  to  see  that  colour  in  the  case  of  any  object, 
whatever  be  its  form  and  nature.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
suggested  anaesthesia  may  easily  be  produced  which 
refers  to  a  single,  definite  object.  For  instance,  the  subject 
may  be  unable  to  see  one  particular  cross  of  red  paper, 
while  she  still  sees  all  the  other  figures,  and  even  other 
crosses,  cut  out  of  the  same  paper.    And  again,  suggestion 

prevents  the  subject  from  seeing  X ^  while  all  other 

people  remain  visible  to  her. 

We  wish  to  insist  on  the  systematic  character  of 
suggested  anaesthesia,  since  its. consequences  are  singular, 
and  we  might  even  say  paradoxical.  Since  suggestion 
only  deprives  the  subject  of  the  perception  of  a  special 
object,  it  follows  that  the  subject  must  recognize  this 
object  in  order  not  to  see  it.  This  fact  is  illustrated  by 
an  experiment.  We  took  one  of  ten  cards  which  were 
apparently  alike,  ^and  said  to  a  somnambulist  subject, 
"  When  you  awake,  you  will  no  longer  see  this  card." 
On  awaking,  we  offered  her  the  ten  cards,  one  after  the 
other,  and  she  took  each  in  turn  except  one,  which  she 
did  not  appear  to  see.  It  was  the  one  to  which  we  had 
directed  her  attention,  and  which  we  had  rendered  in- 
visible. She  therefore  distinguished  it  from  the  others 
and  recognized  it,  since  she  obeyed  the  suggestion 
which  made  it  invisible. 

It  is  clear  that  there  is  nothing  supernatural  in  this 
recognition  of  an  invisible  object,  when  it  is  mixed  with 
several  similar  objects.  The  subject  was  probably  aided 
by  some  distinctive  mark  in  which  it  differed  from  the 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  ANAESTHESIA.       317 

others,  and  this  was  also  the  case  when  she  picked  out 
of  ten  cards  the  one  on  which  suggestion  had  placed  an 
imaginary  portrait.  There  is  some  analogy  between 
these  two  experiments,  since  in  both  cases  the  optic 
image  of  the  card,  with  all  its  slightest  details,  is  photo- 
graphed in  the  subject's  brain,  and  serves  as  a  guide  to 
her  researches. 

It  is  curious  that  this  recognition  of  the  card,  a 
complex  and  delicate  operation,  involving  a  sustained 
effort  of  attention,  should  end  in  a  phenomenon  of 
anaesthesia.  It  seems  probable  that  this  act  of  recog- 
nition occurs  altogether  in  the  region  of  unconscious 
vision.  This  explanation — admitting  it  to  be  an  ex- 
planation— also  applies  to  the  fact  that  when  a  person 
who  has  been  rendered  invisible  takes  out  his  pocket- 
handkerchief,  the  subject  does  not  see  the  ^hand- 
kerchief. If  he  does  not  see  it,  it  is  clearly  because  he 
has  ascertained  that  the  handkerchief  came  from  the 
pocket  of  the  invisible  person.  Here,  again,  we  find  an 
act  of  unconscious  reasoning,  which  precedes,  prepares, 
and  directs  the  phenomenon  of  anaesthesia. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  attempt  to  produce 
systematic  anaesthesia  results  in  a  shallower  and  less 
defined  phenomenon,  which  is,  however,  interesting,  since 
it  approximates  to  the  phenomena  of  normal  life. 

On  awaking  from  the  hypnotic  sleep,  six  cards  were 

placed  on  the  table  before  X ,  and  she  perceived  and 

remembered  their  number.  One  of  the  present  writers 
took  one  of  them,  showed  it  to  her,  and  asserted  that  it 
did  not  exist.  After  some  resistance,  she  finally  admitted 
that  his  hand  was  empty.  But  when  she  was  told  to  pick 
up  the  cards  and  give  them  back  to  him  in  succession,  it 


318  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

was  not  always  the  card  which  had  been  rendered  in- 
visible which  she  left  upon  the  table ;  it  was  sometimes 
one  card,  sometimes  another.  Moreover,  if  a  certain 
number  of  other  cards  was  added  to  the  six,  without 
telling  the  subject  how  many  they  were,  she  counted 
them  all  from  the  first  to  the  last,  including  the  invisible 
card  in  her  enumeration.  This  experiment  seems  to  show 
that  the  suggestion  made  in  the  waking  state  had  not 
produced  in  the  subject  a  sensory  ana3sthesia  with 
respect  to  a  given  card,  but  rather  the  fixed  idea  that 
there  were  only  five  cards  upon  the  table.  There  was 
not  the  profound  disturbance  implied  in  an  error  of  the 
senses,  but  it  was  an  error  of  the  reason,  and  it  was 
this  fixed  idea  which  unconsciously  inclined  her  to  leave 
out  one  card  when  she  attempted  to  count  them. 

There  is  something  in  normal  life  which  closely 
resembles  this  attenuated  form  of  anaesthesia.  The 
preconceived  idea  that  certain  objects  occupy  a  certain 
place  is  a  hindrance  to  seeing  them  elsewhere,  when  they 
are  displaced.  We  have  often  observed  this  peculiarity. 
If  the  hand  of  another  happens  to  have  removed  an 
object  which  habitually  stands  on  our  study  table,  we 
look  about  for  it,  and  may  pass  over  the  place  in  which 
it  now  stands  ten  times  without  perceiving  it.  Nor  is 
this  the  only  point  of  contact  between  the  strange  facts 
of  invisibility  by  suggestion,  and  the  known  facts  of 
normal  life.  It  should  be  observed  that  these  efiects 
of  psychical  inhibition  are  produced  in  subjects  by 
a  negative  form  of  suggestion.  The  experimenter  always 
utters  a  negation,  saying,  "  You  do  not  see  that  person, 
you  do  not  feel  the  contact  of  my  hand."  In  other 
words,  he  impresses  on  his  subjects  the  conviction  that 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  ANESTHESIA.       319 

a  given  object  does  not  exist.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
inferred  that  in  the  normal  state,  whenever  an  individual 
is  dominated  by  the  conviction  that  an  object  does  not 
exist,  the  conviction  renders  him  blind  and  deaf.  If 
it  can  be  truly  said  that  miracles  only  appear  to  those 
who  expect  them,  the  converse  is  also  true,  and  the 
preconceived  idea  that  an  object  does  not  exist  is  a 
hindrance  to  seeing  it.  It  may  also  be  affirmed  that 
every  negation  is  far  from  being  merely  an  inverted 
assertion,  as  it  has  been  termed;  it  probably  produces 
in  a  normal  hearer  a  phenomenon  of  inhibition  which 
is  an  attenuated  form  of  systematic  ansesthesia,  just  as 
the  categorical  assertion  of  a  fact  produces  in  a  normal 
hearer  a  phenomenon  of  excitement  which  is  an 
attenuated  form  of  hallucination. 

Nor,  indeed,  is  a  preconceived  idea  essential  to  the 
production  of  effects  analogous  to  ansesthesia.  The 
simple  fact  of  attention,  which  consists  in  the  concentra^ 
tion  of  the  mind  on  a  single  point,  has  the  result  of 
increasing  the  intensity  of  that  point  so  as  to  surround 
it  with  a  zone  of  ansesthesia.  Attention  only  increases 
the  force  of  certain  sensations  in  proportion  as  it 
attenuates  others.  One  curious  fact  unites  systematic 
ansesthesia  with  the  negative  effects  of  attention.  We 
have  seen  that  an  invisible  object,  such  as  a  square 
of  red,  may,  when  looked  at  with  intentness,  produce 
an  after-image  of  the  same  form  and  of  the  comple- 
mentary colour  ;  the  object  which  was  invisible  in  the 
case  of  direct  vision  becomes  visible  in  this  sort  of  con- 
secutive vision.  It  is  the  same  with  objects  at  which 
we  gaze  without  seeing  them,  since  the  attention  is 
directed  elsewhere.     Physiologists  say  that,  after  look- 


320  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

ing  at  an  object,  an  after-image  is  sometimes  obtained 
in  which  details  are  discovered  which  had  escaped  the 
direct  vision. 

It  is  difficult  to  define  the  nature  of  systematic 
anaesthesia.  We  believe  that  the  sensations  produced 
by  invisible  objects  penetrate  to  the  sensory  centre,  since 
they  produce  after-images,  and  the  cerebral  seat  of  these 
images  is  no  longer  doubtful.*  Moreover,  the  recognition 
of  an  invisible  card  among  ten  others  which  resemble 
it  show  that  the  subject's  nervous  centres  had  photo- 
graphed all  the  details  of  the  invisible  object,  as  well  as 
all  the  modifications  to  which  it  was  subjected  during 
the  experiment. 

It  occurred  to  Richer  to  compare  the  mechanism  of 
these  phenomena  with  that  of  amnesia.  We  know  that 
when  memory  does  not  respond  to  a  spontaneous  call, 
the  material  modifications  which  constitute  its  physical 
substratum  still  remain,  since  the  amnesia  may  be 
transitory,  and  is  curable.  Something  of  the  same  kind 
occurs  in  anaesthesia  by  suggestion  ;  the  material  modifi- 
cations corresponding  with  the  perception  of  the  invisible 
object  are  produced,  but  they  are  not  accompanied  by 
consciousness.  It  is  as  if  the  subject,  as  soon  as  he 
perceived  the  invisible  object,  immediately  forgot  it.  This 
is,  however,  only  a  comparison,  not  an  explanation. 

Nothing  more  definite  can  be  said,  except  that 
systematic  anaesthesia  and  other  facts  of  the  same  class 
must  be  included  in  the  great  group  of  unconscious 
phenomena,  in  which  they  form  a  fresh  class,  with  dis- 
tinctive features  of  their  own.     Whatever  be  the   part 

♦With  respect  to  tbe  cerebral  seat  of  consecutive  images,  see  Binet, 
La  psychologie  du  rai'sonnementf  p.  43. 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  ANiESTHESIA.       321 

assigned  to  consciousness,  it  is  clear  that  the  appearance 
of  this  phenomenon  is  connected  with  certain  material 
conditions  of  the  nervous  centres;  the  conscious  state 
implies  different  physiological  conditions  from  the  un- 
conscious state.  It  may,  therefore,  be  assumed,  that 
suggested  anaesthesia  does  not  only  destroy  the  phe- 
nomenon of  consciousness,  but  that  it  modifies  to  a 
certain  extent  the  concomitant  nervous  process.  Indeed, 
we  cannot  understand  how  a  suggestion  should  modify 
a  psychical  phenomenon  without  affecting  the  nervous 
process  on  which  it  is  founded. 

We  have  not  yet  had  occasion  to  show  the  action 
of  sesthesiogens  on  suggested  anaesthesia;  this  action 
is  curious,  since  the  anaesthesia  is  destroyed.  If,  for 
instance,  it  has  been  suggested  to  an  hypnotic  subject 

that  she  does  not  see  X ,  who  is  standing  before  her, 

and  a  magnet  is  then  applied  to  the  back  of  her  head, 

the  anaesthesia  presently  disappears,  and  X again 

becomes  visible.  This  experiment  is  the  more  curious, 
since  the  magnet  also  possesses  the  property  of  producing 
anaesthesia.  Therefore  the  agent  exerts  two  opposite 
effects,  according  to  circumstances,  and  it  may  also  be 
observed  that  when  the  action  is  continuous,  these  opposite 
effects  are  alternate,  and  this  gives  rise  to  consecutive 
oscillations. 

Systematic  anaesthesia  is  a  comparatively  simple 
phenomenon,  accessible  to  observation  and  experiment, 
and  for  this  reason  it  may  serve  as  an  introduction  to 
the  study  of  other  phenomena  of  the  same  order  which 
are  much  more  complex. 

Like  hallucination  and  impulse,  anaesthesia  is  a 
phenomenon  which   affects  the  peripheral  parts  of  the 


822  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

intelligence,  the  senses  and  the  movements.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  complex  phenomena  connected  with  it 
are  not  external,  and  in  some  sense  belong  to  interior, 
central  psychology ;  they  are  seated  in  a  region  which 
for  the  most  part  eludes  direct  observation.  We  will 
only  cite,  as  an  instance  of  these  complex  phenomena, 
the  failure  of  memory  with  respect  to  a  letter,  a  word, 
or  a  whole  language.  This  experiment  was  often  per- 
formed by  the  early  magnetizers,  and  it  never  failed  to 
make  a  strong  impression  upon  their  audience.  They 
requested  one  of  those  present  to  come  upon  the  plat- 
form, and  after  making  some  passes  over  him,  said 
abruptly  in  an  imperious  tone,  "You  have  forgotten 
what  your  name  is."  The  person  addressed  would  make 
signs  of  denying  the  fact,  would  attempt  to  reply,  and 
after  wearying  himself  by  opening  his  mouth  in  fruitless 
efforts,  would  finally  confess  that  he  no  longer  knew 
what  his  name  was.  The  general  astonishment  can  be 
imagined.  This  experimental  amnesia  appears  to  be 
allied  with  systematic  ansesthesia;  it  is  of  the  same 
order,  with  this  difference,  that  it  affects  the  images  of 
the  memory,  instead  of  the  external  sensations  and 
perceptions. 

Some  of  our  experiments  confirm  this  idea.     A  few 

days  after  rendering  F invisible,  a  somewhat  curious 

fact  was  observed.     The  subject  was  able  to  see  F 's 

person,  but  did  not  recognize  him,  nor  remember  his 
name,  although  she  had  been  acquainted  with  him  for 
ten  years.  The  suggested  sensory  anaesthesia  had,  with- 
out suggestion,  spontaneously  produced  ansesthesia  of 
the  memory. 


(    323    ) 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION  :    MOTOR  PARALYSIS. 

Motor  paralysis  by  means  of  suggestion  forms  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  most  carefully  observed  branches 
of  hypnotism.  We  must  first  devote  a  few  words  to  the 
history  of  this  form  of  paralysis,  of  which  the  discovery 
is  due  to  clinical  science,  and  not  to  hypnotism. 

It  was  in  1869  that  Russell  Reynolds  first  noted  the 
existence  of  motor  and  sensory  disturbances,  developed 
under  the  influence  of  an  idea.*  The  motor  disturbance 
sometimes  consists  in  spasms,  in  ataxic  or  inco-ordinated 
movements,  and  more  frequently  in  paralysis  which 
aflects  the  upper  limbs.  Erb  gives  to  these  symptoms 
the  name  of  imaginative  paraplegia.f 

The  type  of  this  paraplegia  is  afibrded  by  Reynolds's 
first  observation,  which  concerned  a  young  woman  who 
was  affected  by  paraplegia  under  the  following  circum- 
stances. She  lived  alone  with  her  father,  who  had 
undergone  a  reverse  of  fortune,  and  who  became  para- 
lytic  in  consequence  of  protracted   anxiety.     She  sup- 

♦  Russell  Reynolds,  Remarlis  on  Paralysis  and  other  disorders  of 
Motion  and  Sensation,  dependent  on  Idea  (^Brit.  Med.  Journal,  pp.  378,  835, 
vol.  li.,  1869). 

t  Erb,  Paraplegia  durch  Einhildung  (Handb.  d.  Krank.  d.  NerveU' 
system,  p.  826,  in  Ziemssen,  vol.  xi.  part  ii.,  1878). 


324  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

ported  the  household  by  giving  lessons,  which  involved 
long  walks  about  the  town.  Influenced  by  the  fatigue 
caused  by  so  much  walking,  it  occurred  to  her  that  she 
might  herself  become  paralysed  and  that  their  situation 
would  then  be  terrible.  Haunted  by  this  idea,  she  felt 
a  growing  weakness  in  her  limbs,  and  after  a  while  was 
quite  unable  to  walk.  The  pathology  of  the  affection 
was  understood  by  Reynolds,  who  prescribed  a  purely 
moral  treatment.  He  finally  convinced  his  patient  that 
she  was  able  to  walk,  and  in  fact  she  resumed  the 
practice. 

Reynolds  reports  another  remarkable  case  in  which, 
although  there  was  no  real  want  of  motor  power,  there 
was  such  a  failure  of  motor  co-ordination  that  walking 
became  impossible.  It  was  a  case  of  this  kind  which 
led  Charcot  to  study  psychical  paralysis,  and  he  applied 
himself  to  show  that  the  interpretation  given  by  the 
English  writer  was  legitimate.  On  this  occa^ion  Charcot 
again  demonstrated  the  advantage  to  be  derived  from 
hypnotism  in  the  experimental  study  of  the  phenomena 
which  are  spontaneously  displayed,  both  in  health  and 
disease. 

If  the  idea  is  impressed  on  a  somnambulist  that  her 
right  arm  is  paralysed,  we  see  that  this  limb  does  in  fact 
*^lose  its  motor  power,  and  if  the  suggestion  is  made  with 
that  intent,  the  paralysis  is  maintained  on  awaking. 
Charcot  has  shown  that  this  form  of  paralysis  often  dis- 
plays objective  characters  which  approximate  to  those  of 
organic  paralysis. 

Moreover,  as  Bernheim  has  observed,  many  subjects 
who  have  been  previously  hypnotized  may,  without 
being  hypnotized  anew,  display  in  the  waking  state  an 


PARALYSIS   BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.      325 

aptitude  for  the  same  suggestive  phenomena;  that  is, 
paralysis  by  suggestion  may  be  produced  in  some  sub- 
jects, sensitive  to  hypnotism,  when  in  the  waking  state.* 
Nor  is  this  all.  Bottey  has  confirmed  Bernheim's  re- 
searches by  showing  that  in  the  case  of  some  subjects 
who  liave  never  been  hypnotized,  paralysis  may  be 
produced  by  strongly  impressing  on  them  the  idea  that 
they  are  going  to  be  paralyzed.f  We  thus  come  back 
by  experiment  to  Reynolds's  ps^'-chical  paralysis. 

Charcot,  after  repeating  these  various  experiments, 
has  shown  that  there  is  no  breach  between  the  somnam- 
bulist, and  the  subject  liable  to  suggestion,  but  only 
a  gradual  transition,  which  enables  us  to  understand 
psychical  paralysis,  and  which  demonstrates  its  reality. 
The  experimenters  of  the  Salpetriere  have  aimed  more 
especially  at  throwing  into  relief,  according  to  the 
experimental  method  indicated  above,  the  clinical  cha- 
racters of  the  paralysed  limb.  It  is  the  more  important 
to  recognize  these  clinical  characters,  since  they  serve  as 
a  proof  of  the  genuineness  of  the  experiment,  and  make 
the  nature  of  this  paralysis  by  an  idea  in  some  degree 
intelligible. 

We  will  now  give  an  account  of  a  case  in  which  one 
of  our  subjects  was  paralysed  by  suggestion,  taking  care 
to  insist  on  the  material  phenomena  of  which  we  have 
just  spoken.  The  subject  was  first  thrown  into  a  lethargy 
by  ocular  pressure,  and  then  into  somnambulism  by 
friction  of  the  scalp.  She  was  then  told  that  her  right 
arm  was  completely  paralysed.  It  was  necessary  to  in- 
sist on  this  assertion  in  a  determined  manner,  since  the 

•  De  la  suggestion  hijpnotique,  p.  47.     1884. 
t  SocM^de  Biologie,  March  15,  1884. 
15 


326  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

subject  offered  resistance;  she  shook  her  head,  moved 
her  arm  so  as  to  show  that  she  was  able  to  do  so,  and 
replied  to  the  experimenter,  "  I  tell  you  I  am  not  para- 
lysed." The  experimenter  rejoined  with  unwearied  repe- 
tition, "  Your  arm  is  paralysed :  it  is  heavy ;  you  cannot 
hold  it  up,  it  falls  slackly  to  your  side."  In  proportion 
to  the  repetition  of  these  words,  the  subject  moved  her 
arm  with  increasing  difficulty.  Finally  the  paralysis 
was  absolute,  and  the  subject  was  altogether  incapable 
of  moving  it. 

This  being  the  case,  we  said  to  her :  "  This  paralysis 
will  continue  when  you  awake."  We  then  awoke  her 
by  lightly  breathing  on  her  eyes.  She  was  much  sur- 
prised to  find  that  her  arm  was  paralysed,  since  her 
mind  had  retained  no  recollection  of  the  suggestion  made 
during  somnambulism.  She  took  up  the  pendent,  para- 
lysed arm  with  the  other  hand,  and  placed  it  on  her  lap. 

It  may  seem  surprising  that  when  subjects  awake  in 
this  manner  to  find  themselves  affected  by  a  serious  or 
revolting  complaint,  they  show  hardly  any  uneasiness. 
Unless  a  sensation  of  pain  has  also  been  suggested,  they 
are  rarely  troubled  by  their  condition,  and  they  seem  to 
be  quite  easy  as  to  the  issue  of  this  affection.  But  it 
must  be  remembered  that  we  have  to  do  with  hysterical 
patients,  who  endure  with  the  greatest  indifference  all 
the  sufferings  which  are  the  spontaneous  result  of  their 
disease.  For  instance,  they  display  no  impatience  if 
their  limbs  remain  contracted  for  months  together,  and 
they  do  not  deplore  their  lot  as  patients  would  do  who 
are  similarly  affected  in  consequence  of  some  organic 
lesion.     This  is  a  well-known  feature,  peculiar  to  hysteria. 

When  we  examine  the  phenomena  which  are  dis- 


PARALYSIS  BY   SUGGESTION:   MOTOR   PARALYSIS.      327 

played  by  the  paralysed  limb,  we  shall  first  be  struck 
by  the  complete  destruction  of  motor  power.  The  sub- 
ject is  incapable  of  performing  the  slightest  movement. 
When  desired  to  move  her  arm,  she  makes  futile  efforts 
and  ineffectual  contortions.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
when  attempting  to  move  the  paralysed  right  arm,  the 
subject  performs  involuntary  and  unconscious  movements 
with  the  left  arm.  Besides  being  unable  to  raise  the 
arm,  the  subject  cannot  hold  it  up,  when  it  is  raised  by 
the  hand  of  another ;  as  soon  as  the  arm  is  left  to  itself, 
it  falls  back  like  an  inert  mass.  Its  flaccidity  is  com- 
plete. This  motor  paralysis  is  generally  accompanied 
by  insensibility  of  the  skin,  an  insensibility  which  may 
be  profound,  even  if  the  subject  was  not  anaesthetic 
before  the  experiment  began.  The  arm  may  be  pricked 
or  pinched  with  impunity,  and  without  producing  the 
slightest  reaction.  If  this  proof  is  considered  insufficient, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  electricity,  and  intense  currents 
may  be  sent  through  the  paralysed  arm  without  inducing 
the  subject  to  complain ;  she  remains  perfectly  passive. 

With  respect  to  the  distribution  of  the  angesthesia, 
Charcot  has  recently  ascertained  that  in  some  subjects 
anaesthesia  is  exactly  coextensive  with  the  paralysed 
region.  If  only  the  shoulder  joint  and  its  movement 
are  paralysed,  that  region  alone  is  affected  by  insensi- 
bility ;  the  arm,  the  fore-arm,  the  wrist  and  fingers 
retain  their  normal  sensibility.  If  the  articulation 
of  the  shoulder  and  that  of  the  elbow  are  paralysed, 
the  anaesthesia  goes  lower,  advancing  as  far  as  the  middle 
of  the  fore-arm  ;  if  the  wrist  is  also  paralysed,  the 
anaesthesia  extends  still  further,  and  it  finally  affects  the 
extremities  when  the  fingers  have  also  been  paralysed. 


328  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

Muscular  sensibility  is  destroyed,  as  well  as  the  sensi- 
bility to  touch  and  to  suffering ;  that  is,  the  subject  is 
unaware  of  the  position  occupied  by  the  paralysed 
limb,  and  of  the  passive  movements  communicated  to  it. 
When  the  subject's  eyes  are  closed,  she  is  incapable  of 
finding  the  hand  of  her  paralysed  arm  with  her  sound 
hand ;  in  order  to  do  so,  she  must  have  recourse  to  the 
expedient  of  feeling  for  her  shoulder,  and  passing  her 
hand  thence  all  along  the  arm  to  its  extremity.  When 
not  allowed  to  use  this  means,  the  search  occupies  much 
time,  and  may  even  be  indefinitely  prolonged  by  with- 
drawing the  paralysed  hand  from  the  sound  hand  which 
is  seeking  for  it. 

Conversely,  if  instead  of  suggesting  the  loss  of  motor 
power,  the  subject  is  told  that  throughout  the  limb 
there  is  a  loss  of  cutaneous  and  sub-cutaneous  sensi- 
bility, that  her  skin  is  insensible  to  contact,  to  pricks, 
etc.,  the  association  of  symptoms  produces  more  or  less 
disorder  in  the  motor  functions.  In  some  subjects  a 
complete  paralysis  is  produced ;  in  others  the  effect  is 
more  superficial,  and  yet  still  more  curious.  The  subject 
whose  right  arm  is  affected  by  ansesthesia,  is  unable, 
when  her  eyes  are  closed,  to  use  this  arm ;  when  told 
to  put  her  right  hand  on  her  forehead,  she  executes 
the  gesture  in  question  with  her  left  hand.  Sight  is 
required  in  order  to  rectify  this  confusion  Jbetween  the 
two  hands,  and  the  subject  makes  no  mistake  when  her 
eyes  are  open,  and  fixed  upon  the  limb.  We  need  not 
say  more  of  this  peculiarity,  which  is  known  to  patho- 
logists in  other  connections. 

All  the  foregoing  phenomena  are  purely  subjective  ; 
thore  are  others  which  are  displayed  by  external  signs. 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.   329 

The  paralysed  limb  is  cold,  and  the  sensation  of  cold 
experienced  by  the  subject  may  sometimes  be  verified 
by  thermometrical  observation.  The  motor  signs  must 
also  be  noted.  Motor  paralysis  is  accompanied  by  an 
exaggeration  of  the  tendon  reflex,  which  can  be  demon- 
strated by  a  very  simple  process  of  investigation. 
Striking  on  the  tendons  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  or  of 
the  wrist,  suffices  to  produce  shocks  in  the  arm  which  do 
not  occur  in  the  normal  state.  This  exaofcrerated  reflex 
action  is  still  more  readily  displayed  in  the  leg,  in  which 
percussion  of  the  patellar  ligament  produces  a  considerable 
shock  (Charcot).  This  character  connects  paratysis  by 
suggestion  with  organic  paralysis.  But,  like  the  spon- 
taneous paralysis  of  hysteria,  paralysis  by  suggestion 
may  present  some  variations  in  its  symptomatic  forms. 

Richer  and  Gilles  de  la  Tourette  performed  some 
interesting  experiments  with  respect  to  the  form  of  the 
muscular  shock,  by  means  of  Marey's  graphic  method. 
They  ascertained  that  during  the  period  of  paralysis 
the  shock  increases,  and  that  it  diminishes  with  the 
return  of  voluntary  movement.  In  some  cases,  in 
addition  to  the  increase  in  the  height  of  the  shock,  they 
observed  the  broken  and  prolonged  line  of  descent,  which 
resembled  an  imperfect  tetanisation.  We  know  that 
when  a  contracture  is  produced  during  lethargy  by 
the  excitement  of  a  nerve  branch,  or  by  kneading'  of 
the  muscles,  this  lethargic  contracture  presents  the 
curious  property  that  it  is  relaxed  and  completely  de- 
stroyed, when  the  excitement  is  applied  to  the  muscles 
which  are  antagonistic  to  the  contractured  muscles.  The 
contractures  and  paralysis  produced  during  somnam- 
bulism or  in  the  waking  state  do  not  display  the  same 


330  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

chai-acteristic.  If  the  subject  is  thrown  into  a  lethargy, 
she  maintains  the  contracture  or  paralysis  which  is  given 
to  her,  and  the  excitement  of  the  antagonist  muscles 
produces  no  effect  on  this  phenomenon.  In  order  to 
make  it  disappear,  recourse  must  be  had  to  suggestion, 
by  which  it  was  produced. 

So  far,  our  study  has  been  confined  to  the  paralysed 
limb,  but  when  a  limb  is  paralysed  by  suggestion,  an 
interesting  fact  takes  place  in  the  limb  on  the  opposite 
side ;  its  strength  is  increased  so  as  to  compensate  to  a 
certain  extent  for  the  paralysis  of  the  other  limb.  In  his 
normal  state  one  of  our  subjects  was  requested  to  grasp 
a  dynamometer,  with  the  following  result : — 

With  the  right  hand       ...  ...  ...  „.     39 

With  the  left  hand  ...  ...  ...  ...     27 

He  was  then  hypnotized,  and  his  right  arm  was 
paralysed  by  suggestion.  The  pressure  of  the  dynamo- 
meter afibrded  the  following  results  : — 

With  the  right  hand       ...  ...  ...  ...       0 

With  the  left  hand  ...  ...  ...  ...     37 

This  result  may  be  explained  by  saying  that  the 
inhibition  effected  on  the  right  side  by  suggestion 
produced  dynamogeny  on  the  left.  The  simultaneous 
production  of  inhibition  and  of  dynamogeny  in  sym- 
metrical points  has  been  repeatedly  noted  by  Brown- 
Sequard  in  his  experiments  in  vivisection.  He  writes 
as  follows :  — "  The  diminution  and  augmentation  of  the 
power  and  activity  of  the  nervous  system  generally,  if 
not  always,  co-exist.  The  same  excitement  of  a  point  in 
the  nervous  system  which  diffuses  itself  so  as  to  produce 
the  inhibition  of  a  property  or  activity  in  certain  parts 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION  :  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.      331 

of  the  nervous  centres,  in  certain  nerves  and  muscles 
of  one  half  of  the  body,  also  produces  dynamogeny  in 
the  corresponding  parts  of  the  other  half  This  occurs 
Tv^hen  the  exciting  lesion  is  unilateral.  For  instance, 
the  division  of  the  sciatic  nerves  generally  increases  the 
excitability  of  the  motor  centres  of  the  cerebral  surface 
of  the  corresponding  side,  while  it  diminishes  the  ex- 
citability of  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  opposite  side. 
Analogous,  and  generally  stronger  effects  are  observed 
after  the  transverse  division  of  a  lateral  half  of  the 
spinal  cord,  and  especially  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  or 
of  the  pons  varolii."  * 

These  phenomena  seem  to  show  that  the  artificial 
modification  produced  in  one  hemisphere  tends  to  produce 
a  modification  in  the  opposite  direction  in  the  other. 
There  must  therefore  exist  between  the  two  hemispheres, 
or,  as  it  has  been  said,  between  the  two  brains,  not  only 
a  functional  independence,  but  also,  under  conditions 
which  are  not  yet  ascertained,  a  compensating  power 
of  supply.  It  may  be  remembered  that  we  met  with 
similar  facts  during  our  study  of  halluci nation  s. 

In  the  foregoing  cases  we  have  only  spoken  of  the 
total  paralysis  which  takes  possession  of  the  whole  limb. 
By  a  different  mode  of  suggestion  the  paralysis  may  be 
restricted  to  a  group  of  muscles  which  are  habitually 
associated  in  one  movement.  The  subject  may  be  told 
that  she  is  unable  to  bend  one  finger.  In  this  case  the 
paralysis  is  not  total  but  partial,  and  it  is  accompanied 
by  some  interesting  facts  which  do  not  occur  in  total 
paralysis,  of  which  the  following  is  an  instance. 

*  Brown-Seqimrd,  Beelierches  sur  Vinldbition  et  la  dynamog^nie,  p.  25 
Paris,  1882. 


332  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

We  suggested  to  a  subject  that  she  would  be  unable 
to  bend  her  thumb  in  a  way  which  was  indicated  to 
her.  After  a  moment,  when  time  had  been  given  for 
effecting  the  suggested  paralysis,  we  awoke  the  subject, 
who  remembered  nothing  and  had  no  suspicion  of  the 
paralysis.  We  desired  her  to  make  a  great  effort  to  bend 
her  thumb,  which  she  attempted  to  do,  but  the  converse 
of  what  was  ordered  and  intended  took  place,  and  instead 
of  bending  the  thumb  towards  the  palm  of  the  hand,  it 
was  forcibly  extended.  The  experiment  was  carried  on 
by  herself,  and  the  thumb  was  contractured  in  its  ex- 
tended position;  by  degrees  the  index  finger  lost  the 
power  of  bending,  and  this  was  also  the  case  with  the 
middle  and  third  fingers,  which  were  gradually  extended, 
and  slightly  contractured  in  their  extension.  Thus  it 
appears  that  when  the  subject  desired  to  bend  her 
thumb,  she  could  only  extend  it,  and  the  importance  of 
this  species  of  motor  quid  proquo  is  entitled  to  a  passing 
notice.  The  experiment  may  be  connected  with  that  of 
systematic  anaesthesia.  We  have  seen  that  when  the 
vision  of  a  red  square  has  been  destroyed  by  sugges- 
tion, the  fixed  gaze  at  this  square  enables  the  subject  to 
see  the  green  complementary  image.  In  the  experiment 
we  are  now  considering,  the  paralysis  of  a  group  of  move- 
ments produced,  when  the  subject  wished  to  execute 
these  movements,  those  which  were  antagonistic  to  them. 
Such  a  movement  may  be  compared  to  the  after-image, 
and  the  same  relation  may  be  said  to  exist  between 
the  antagonistic  movements  as  between  the  comple- 
mentary colours. 

Of  this  we  can  cite  another  proof.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  application  of  the  magnet,  as  well 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.  333 

as  suggestion,  produces  sensory  paralysis,  but  with 
characteristic  differences.  Thus,  under  the  influence  of 
the  magnet,  the  vision  of  a  red  cross  is  changed  into  the 
vision  of  a  blank  cross  on  a  green  ground.  Suggestion, 
on  the  other  hand,  when  it  destroys  the  conscious  vision 
of  a  red  cross,  enables  the  subject  to  see  a  green  cross. 
The  motor  paralysis  produced  by  the  magnet  differs  in 
an  analogous  way  from  the  motor  paralysis  produced  by 
suggestion.  If  the  subject  is  told  that  she  can  bend  her 
thumb,  and  the  flexion  movement  is  then  paralysed  by 
the  application  of  the  magnet,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
subject  is  also  unable  to  extend  her  thumb;  she  can 
do  nothing  with  it  at  all.  If,  on  the  contrary,  suggestion 
has  paralysed  the  flexion,  the  movement  of  extension  is 
retained.  We  may  say  that  paralysis  by  the  magnet, 
which  includes  the  two  antagonistic  movements,  is  com- 
parable with  the  blank  cross,  in  which  paral^^sis  of  the 
two  complementary  colours  occurs,  and  that  paralysis  by 
suggestion,  which  does  not  affect  the  antagonistic  move- 
ment of  extension,  is  comparable  with  the  green  cross, 
which  preserves  the  complementary  colour  intact. 

Secondary  Symptoms.  Aphasia, — The  course  of  this 
brief  description  has  enabled  us  to  see  that  suggestion 
does  not  merely  produce  an  isolated  symptom  in  a  subject, 
but  a  complete  disease.  It  is,  indeed,  a  remarkable  fact, 
that  when  the  suggested  symptom  is  one  of  a  nexus  of 
symptoms,  the  subject  of  experiment  shows  a  tendency 
to  display  the  whole  nexus.  For  instance,  we  impressed 
upon  one  of  our  hypnotized  subjects  the  idea  that 
when  she  awoke  her  right  arm  would  be  paralysed. 
We  were  much  surprised  to  find  that  when  she  awoke, 
not   only  her  right   arm  was   paralysed,   but    she  was 


334  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

unable  to  utter  a  word.  Her  intelligence  was  not 
affected,  and  she  perfectly  understood  what  was  said,  but 
the  extremity  of  her  tongue  was  drawn  to  the  left  side, 
and  moved  with  difficulty.  It  was  impossible  for  the 
subject  to  divine  that  this  coincidence,  interesting  in 
more  than  one  particular,  could  occur.  This  association 
is  explained  by  the  vicinity  of  the  motor  centres  of  the 
right  arm,  and  of  those  for  tlie  muscles  concerned  with 
the  production  of  articulate  speech  in  the  cortex  of  the 
left  hemisphere  of  the  cerebrum.* 

So  far  we  have  been  only  concerned  with  the  flaccid 
forms  of  paralysis.  Contractured  paralysis  may  be  pro- 
duced by  the  same  process,  since  it  is  subject  to  the  same 
laws  as  flaccid  paralysis,  and  likewise  causes  an  aug- 
mentation of  muscular  power  in  the  corresponding  limb. 
The  special  feature  of  suggested  contractures  consists  in 
the  possibility  of  impressing  upon  them  the  character  of 
systematization  which  belongs  to  lethargic  contractures. 
We  have  already  observed  that  during  lethargy  the 
excitement  of  a  nerve  produces  the  contracture  of  the 
muscles  in  connection  with  it;  the  excitement  of  the 
ulnar  nerve,  where  it  passes  behind  the  internal  condyle, 
produces  the  well-known  ulnar  contracture.  What  is 
effected  by  mechanical  excitement  may  also  be  effected 
by  suggestion ;  when  the  idea  is  suggested  to  the  subject 
of  a  pressure  exerted  at  a  level  with  her  elbow,  an  ulnar 
contracture  is  produced  which  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  that  of  letliargy.  This  experiment  may  be  varied 
by  describing  a  small  circle  on  the  lethargic  subject's  fore- 
arm, and  by  pressing  the  centre  of  this  circle  with  the 
finger ;  a  certain  number  of  the  muscles  become  contrac- 

*  Ch.  Fere,  Les  Hypnotiques,  etc. 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.      335 

tured.  The  subject  is  then  caused  to  pass  from  lethargy 
into  somnambulism,  and  is  told  that  on  awaking  she  will 
feel  a  strong  pressure  on  the  centre  of  the  small  circle 
which  has  been  described  on  her  fore-arm.  When  she 
awakes,  the  subject  complains  of  pain,  seated  in  the  spot 
indicated  by  the  suggestion,  and  her  hand  soon  becomes 
contractured,  and  reproduces  precisely  the  attitude  it  had 
assumed  during  lethargy.  This  experiment  shows  that 
the  suggested  idea  of  an  excitement,  the  image  of  a  cuta- 
neous excitement,  may  produce  effects  as  intense  and  as 
precisely  localized  as  an  actual  excitement. 

This  does  not  imply  that  lethargic  contracture  is  a 
contracture  produced  by  suggestion.  Suggestion  and 
the  physical  impression  constitute  two  parallel  methods, 
and  it  would  be  very  illogical  to  refer  the  method  by 
excitement  to  the  method  by  suggestion,  because  the 
latter  is  really  derived  from  the  former. 

When  once  produced,  paralysis  by  suggestion  may  be 
indefinitely  prolonged.  We  have  seen  a  case  in  which  it 
was  maintained  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  was  unmodified 
by  natural  sleep.  The  attempt  to  put  an  end  to  it  pro- 
voked more  resistance  than  if  the  paralysis  had  been 
recent,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  without  such 
intervention,  it  would  have  become  more  intense,  and 
more  difficult  to  cure.  The  usual  mode  of  destroying 
physical  paralysis  is  to  suggest  the  opposite  idea  of  motor 
power ;  a  simple  assertion  will  not  suffice,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  insist,  and  to  return  to  the  charge,  repeatedly 
telling  the  subject  that  she  can  move  the  limb  if  she 
chooses  to  do  so.  Under  the  exciting  influence  of  this 
suggestion,  the  subject  attempts  to  raise  the  stiffened  arm, 
the  power  of  movement  gradually  returns  to  it,  and  the 


336  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

nervous  circulation  is  restored,  but  some  of  the  objective 
signs  of  paralysis,  such  as  the  exaggeration  of  the 
tendon  reflex,  remain  for  a  little  while  longer.  Another 
mode  of  curing  motor  paralysis  is  often  quicker  and  more 
efficacious  than  suggestion ;  namely,  to  represent  move- 
ment to  the  subject,  either  by  actually  performing  such 
movements  before  him,  or  by  impressing  passive  move- 
ments on  the  paralysed  limb.  The  influence  of  such 
operations  is  well  shown  by  the  fact  that,  in  the  case  of 
a  healthy  subject,  the  representation  of  a  movement  pro- 
duced by  one  of  the  methods  just  indicated  is  calculated 
to  increase  the  motor  power.*  It  is  a  still  more  effectual 
process  to  induce  the  subject  to  move  his  sound  limb, 
and  then  attempt  to  imitate  these  movements  with  the 
paralysed  limb.  In  this  way  the  subject  carries  on  his 
motor  education,  at  once  by  the  muscular  sense  and  by 
the  sense  of  sight. 

In  concluding  this  clinical  study  of  paralysis  by  sug- 
gestion, it  should  be  added  that  the  physical  charac- 
ters described  above  are  not  absolutely  constant,  and 
have  not  occurred  in  the  subjects  of  several  experiments. 
But  their  inconstancy  does  not  affect  their  value  and 
importance.  All  the  foregoing  experiments  were  per- 
formed on  typical  subjects,  that  is,  on  the  hystero-epi- 
leptic  subjects  who  display  all  the  characters  of  profound 
hypnotism.  These  subjects  have  the  advantage  of  dis- 
playing, with  considerable  exaggeration,  symptoms  which 
are  rudimentary  or  altogether  absent  in  normal  subjects. 
From  this  point  of  view  it  may  be  said  that  the  subjects 
of  profound  hypnotism  constitute  analytic  cases  which 
are  eminently  adapted  for  nosographical  study. 
*  Ch.  Fer^,  Sensation  et  Mouveinentf  etc. 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.     337 


II. 

Systematic  paralysis  differs  from  total  paralysis  in  its 
more  complex  character.  It  consists  in  the  loss  of  special 
and  adapted  movements.  The  subject  affected  by  it  does 
not  completely  lose  the  use  of  his  limb,  but  he  is  inca- 
pable of  using  it  to  perform  a  given  act,  and  that  act 
only.  Thus,  the  subject  may  be  deprived  of  the  power 
of  performing  the  movements  necessary  in  the  action  of 
sewing,  drawing,  writing,  smoking,  singing,  playing  on 
the  piano,  etc.,  while  other  movements  are  not  affected. 
The  authoritative  assertion  that  the  subject  will,  on 
awaking,  be  unable  to  write  will,  if  repeated  often 
enough,  produce,  by  a  mechanism  which  we  do  not  yet 
understand,  a  paralysis  of  the  power  of  writing,  which  is 
termed  agraphia. 

It  is  for  the  experimenter  to  choose  the  form  which 
the  systematic  paralysis  is  to  take ;  it  may  be  varied 
indefinitely,  just  as  the  form  of  hallucinations  may  be 
indefinitely  varied.  Suggestion  can  reproduce  all  physio- 
logical phenomena,  and  the  old  magnetizers  often  took 
advantage  of  this  fact.  They  said  to  their  subjects  : 
"  You  cannot  leave  the  circle  I  have  drawn  round  you," 
and  the  subject  remained  glued  to  the  spot,  in  spite  of 
all  his  efforts  to  leave  the  circle.  Or  :  "  You  cannot  pro- 
nounce your  own  name,"  and  the  subject  vainly  opened 
his  mouth,  without  being  able  to  utter  a  syllable  of  his 
name.  Dr.  Phillips,  who  in  1860  held  public  seances 
in  hypnotism  in  Paris,  on  one  occasion  suggested  to  a 
person  present,  who  was  called  Laverdant,  that  he  would 
be  unable  to  pronounce  or  write  the  two  a's  in  his  name. 


338  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

The  subject  tried  in  vain  to  write  his  name,  and  he  traced 
the  characters  given  in  the  accompanying  facsimile 
(Fig.  15). 

At  first  sight,  systematic  paralysis  appears  to  have 
nothing  in  common  with  total  paralysis.    When  a  subject 


Fig.  15. 

has  received  the  suggestion  that  she  will  on  awaking  be 
unable  to  write,  no  visible  modification  occurs  in  her  arm. 
The  paralysis  remains  in  some  sense  latent,  and  is  only 
revealed  to  the  subject's  consciousness  at  the  decisive 
moment  when  she  takes  up  a  pen  and  tries  to  write. 
Up  to  that  time  her  right  arm  appeared  to  be  as  perfectly 
free  as  the  left,  and  displayed  nothing  in  common  with 
the  flaccidity  of  total  paralysis.  Yet  these  two  forms  of 
paralysis  only  differ  in  degree.  Total  paralysis  involves 
the  loss  of  all  kinds  of  movement,  extension,  flexion, 
rotation,  abduction  and  adduction,  etc.,  while  in  syste- 
matic paralysis,  the  loss  does  not  apply  to  all  movements, 
but  only  to  those  which  are  necessary  for  the  performance 
of  a  given  act. 

To  speak  more  precisely,  when  the  subject  is  deprived 
of  the  power  of  performing  a  certain  act,  all  the  move- 
ments which  have  to  do  with  that  act  are  paralysed  by 
suggestion.  This  is  the  plain  fact.  Suppose  that  sugges- 
tion has  destroyed  an  act  in  wliich  the  movement  of 
extending  the  index  finger  occurs.  It  may  be  asked 
whether  the  subject,  who  cannot  perform  the  act  as  a 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.  339 

whole,  is  incapable  of  extending  the  index  in  an  isolated 
movement.  In  other  words,  is  the  systematic  paralysis 
a  loss  of  movement,  or  a  loss  of  the  power  of  co-ordi- 
nating certain  movements  with  a  view  to  an  act  ? 

Experiment  alone  can  reply  to  this  question.  Give 
to  a  subject  a  suggestion  of  agraphia,  and  when  she 
awakes,  examine  her  right  hand.  It  is  easily  ascertained 
that  the  power  of  bending  and  extending  the  fingers 
remains,  although  these  movements  are  largely  employed 
in  the  act  of  writing,  so  that  the  individual  movement 
is  not  lost,  but  the  possibility  of  co-ordinating  these 
movements  so  as  to  accomplish  a  given  act.  Another 
instance  throws  a  still  stronger  light  on  this  fact.  De- 
prive a  hypnotized  subject  of  the  power  of  writing  the 
word  not,  and  she  will  still  be  able  to  write  at  your 
request  many  other  words,  even  those  which  contain 
the  letters  n^  o,  t,  which  proves  that  she  has  not  lost  the 
power  of  writing  each  of  these  letters  separately,  but 
only  the  power  of  combining  them.  Systematic  paralysis 
therefore  consists  in  a  disturbance  of  motor  co-ordination; 
it  does  not  affect  movements,  but  the  association  of  move- 
ments; it  disassociates  the  movements  which  were 
originally  associated. 

A  useful  comparison  may  be  made  between  systematic 
paralysis  and  systematic  aniesthesia,  of  which  we  have 
given  a  slight  sketch  above.  There  is  a  correspondence 
between  these  two  phenomena,  since  one  is  in  the  series 
of  facts  of  motor  power,  the  other  in  the  series  of  facts  of 
«ensation.  There  is  paralysis  in  both  cases,  and  in  both 
the  paralysis  has  a  systematic  character.  The  total 
paralysis  of  a  limb  corresponds  with  the  total  blindness 
of  an  eye,  and  the  incapacity  to  perform  a  given  act,  and 


340  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

that  act  only,  corresponds  with  the  incapacity  to  perceive 
a  given  object,  and  that  object  only.  We  therefore 
decline  to  apply  to  systematic  anaesthesia  the  name  of 
negative  hallucination,  which  appears  to  us  to  be 
singularly  inappropriate,  since  we  are  not  at  all  con- 
cerned with  hallucination.  To  call  systematic  anaesthe- 
sia a  negative  hallucination  is  much  the  same  as  it  would 
be  to  call  systematic  paralysis  a  negative  motor  impulse. 
We  must  set  aside  a  vicious  terminology  which  only 
serves  to  confuse  our  ideas. 

The  comparison  we  have  just  indicated  might  be 
carried  further  if  our  space  permitted  it.  We  can  only 
point  out  one  conclusion  which  may  be  deduced  from  it ; 
that  systematic  anaesthesia,  since  it  resembles  paralysis, 
consists  in  great  measure  in  a  disturbance  of  the  co- 
ordinating faculty. 

We  return  to  the  study  of  systematic  paralysis  after 
this  short  digression.  One  character  connects  it  with 
total  paralysis :  it  is  generally  accompanied  by  a  weak- 
ening of  the  motor  power.  If  we  turn  to  the  former 
example,  which  is  the  simplest,  we  find  that  the  sub- 
ject whom  we  have  caused  to  be  affected  by  agraphia 
generally  complains  that  his  right  hand  feels  somewhat 
heavy  and  inert.  These  subjective  sensations  are  con- 
firmed by  direct  examination.  If  the  subject  of  agraphia 
is  requested  to  grasp  the  dynamometer  with  his  right 
hand,  it  is  generally  found  that  he  exerts  less  than  the 
normal  pressure.  This  slight  paresia  has  been  pointed 
out  by  Pitres  in  a  minute  clinical  observation,  whence  it 
appears  that  the  artificial  agraphia  produced  by  sug- 
gestion presents  this  characteristic  in  common  with 
spontaneous  agraphia. 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION  :  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.      341 

We  have  noted  a  second  physical  sign,  which  we 
also  think  important.  Systematic  paralysis,  as  well  as 
total  paralysis,  produces  a  manifestation  of  dynamogeny 
in  the  symmetrical  limb.  When  the  right  hand  is 
affected  by  agraphia,  the  left  hand  becomes  capable  of 
registering  on  the  dynamometer  a  higher  degree  than 
before.  The  loss  on  the  one  side  is  compensated  by  a  gain 
on  the  other.  This  experiment  may  be  carried  further. 
The  systematic*  paralysis  of  one  limb  may  not  only  pro- 
duce in  the  other  an  increase  of  intensity  in  the  muscular 
contraction,  but  also  greater  accuracy  and  perfection  of 
movement.  When  a  subject's  right  hand  had  been 
rendered  agraphic  by  suggestion,  she  was  on  awaking 
requested  to  set  down  figures  with  the  left  hand.  She 
consented,  and  the  figures,  which  were  reversed,  as  in 
a  mirror,  were  almost  irreproachable  as  far  as  the  writing 
was  concerned.  The  figures  were  all  set  down  with  one 
movement,  and  continuously,  nor  did  the  subject  pause 
to  consider.  On  another  occasion  we  observed  this 
subject's  normal  writing  with  the  left  hand,  when  the 
right  hand  was  not  agraphic.  She  then  wrote  with 
great  difiiculty;  each  figure  cost  her  at  least  a  half- 
minute's  reflection,  and  moreover  the  result  was  some- 
what defective. 

The  agraphia  of  the  right  arm  consequently  increases 
the  co-ordinating  power  of  moving  the  left  arm  in  writing. 
This  experiment  may  be  explained  by  saying  that,  owing 
to  the  suggested  agraphia,  the  faculty  of  writing,  acquired 
by  the  right  hand  in  consequence  of  a  long  apprentice- 
ship, is  transferred  to  the  left  hand. 

These  facts  will  remind  the  reader  of  the  experiments 
in   transference   by  the   magnet  which  we   have   given 


342  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

above.  We  saw  thai>  when  the  magnet  was  applied  to  a 
subject  who  had  received  the  suggestion  of  writing  with 
the  right  hand,  the  impulse  was  transferred  from  the 
right  to  the  left  hand ;  the  subject  wrote  backwards,  as 
in  a  mirror,  with  the  left  hand,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
right  hand  became  agraphic.  The  direct  suggestion  of 
agraphia  produces  an  analogous  result,  and  this  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that,  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the 
excitement,  whether  suggestion  or  the  application  of  the 
magnet,  the  brain  remains  the  same,  and  always  re -acts 
in  accordance  with  the  laws  which  govern  it.  This 
reason  also  explains  why  Brown-Sequard  produced  the 
same  effects  in  dogs  and  guinea-pigs,  by  a  twofold 
organic  lesion,  which  are  produced  in  hysterical  subjects 
by  transference. 

We  must  in  conclusion  point  out  one  more  character- 
istic of  systematic  paralysis,  which  is  also  found  in  total 
paralysis.  The  following  observation  was  made  by 
Richer,  who  was  not  aware  of  its  importance,  although 
he  recorded  it  with  the  scrupulous  conscientiousness  of 
an  observer,  and   this   makes  it  the  more  significant.* 

"  When  X was  in  the  somnambulant  state,  we  told 

her  that  she  was  unable  to  write.  ...  As  soon  as  she 
awoke,  we  requested  her  to  write  her  name.  She  took 
up  a  pen  with  eagerness,  but  it  had  hardly  touched  the 
paper,  when  she  found  it  impossible  to  write  a  stroke, 
however  anxious  she  was  to  do  so.  It  was  interestinor 
to  observe  her  gestures.  At  every  effort  which  she  made 
to  bend  her  fingers,  they  assumed  movements  of  extension. 

*  Op.  cit.  p.  747.    This  observation  was  made  on  March  1,  1881,  and 
it  agrees  in  all  respects  with  experiments  performed  by  us  in  December^ 

1885. 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.      343 

Her  wrist  was  also  extended,  and  her  hand  was  raised. 
She  tried  to  keep  her  right  hand  resting  on  the  table 
with  the  aid  of  the  left  hand,  but  she  was  unable  to 
restrain  and  regulate  the  contradictory  movements  which 
ensued  from  each  attempt  to  write." 

As  we  have  already  observed,  the  occurrence  of 
antagonistic  movements  which  accompanies  the  para- 
lysis of  certain  movements,  seems  to  us  to  resemble  the 
production  of  the  complementary  colour  which  is  observed 
in  suggested  achromatopsia.  In  both  cases  the  paralysis 
of  one  function  causes  an  exaggeration  of  the  other,  and 
it  may  be  said  that  the  same  relation  exists  between  the 
antagonistic  movements  as  between  the  complementary 
colours. 

When  speaking  of  suggestions  of  acts,  we  insisted  on 
the  varied  forms  which  the  suggestion  may  assume. 
Suggestions  of  paralysis  are  susceptible  of  similar  varia- 
tions. Sometimes  the  subject  is  simply  told  that  his 
arm  is  paralysed ;  sometimes  it  is  suggested  to  him  that 
he  has  forgotten  how  to  move  it,  or  again  that  he  wishes 
not  to  move  his  arm,  or  the  idea  of  an  inability  to  move 
it  is  impressed  upon  him. 

Most  observers  make  use  of  several  of  these  suggestions 
at  once,  cumulatively  and  without  distinction,  and  it  is 
noteworthy  that  such  different  processes  afford  identical 
results.  From  the  psychological  point  of  view  there  is 
a  wide  difference  between  the  subject  who  does  not  move 
his  arm  because  he  is  unable  to  do  so,  and  the  subject 
who  does  not  move  his  arm  because  he  does  not  wish  to 
do  so.  But  the  clinical  observation  of  these  two  kinds 
of  paralysis  shows  that  they  present  the  same  character- 
istics ;  it  is,  therefore,  probable  that  in  all  these  cases 


344  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

suggestion  produces  the  same  modification  in  the  motor 
centres  of  the  arm,  in  spite  of  its  diverse  forms. 

We  thus  come  to  the  conclusion  that  paralysis  of  the 
motor  centre  is  the  fundamental  fact.  This  fact  may  be 
interpreted  by  the  agent  in  different  ways,  and  may  be 
ascribed  either  to  an  incapacity  to  act,  or  to  a  determi- 
nation not  to  act;  but  such  interpretations  are  secondary, 
accessory,  superadded  phenomena,  which  do  not  form  an 
integral  part  of  the  occurrence.  The  whole  history  of 
the  will  is  comprised  in  two  words,  impulse  and  paralysis. 

It  may  be  asked  what  are  the  normal  facts  which 
may  be  compared  with  psychical  paralysis  by  means  of 
suggestion.  Total  paralysis,  with  its  complete  flaccidity, 
and  its  other  strongly  marked  features,  does  not  appear 
to  correspond  with  anything  in  normal  psychology ;  but 
this  is  not  the  case  with  systematic  paralysis,  since 
phenomena  of  inhibition  occur  in  a  sound  person  when- 
ever his  will  efiects  an  arrest  of  movement.  Heidenhain 
observes  that  inhibition  takes  place  when  a  man  lowers 
his  raised  arm,  and  this  is  also  the  case  when  he  refrains 
from  the  manifestation  of  violent  anger  or  of  fear.  Ribot 
justly  regards  the  will  as  at  once  a  power  of  impulse 
and  a  power  of  restraint.  As  energetic  a  will  is  displayed 
in  remaining  impassive  as  in  giving  free  vent  to  passion. 

The  action  of  sesthesiogens  on  paralysis  by  suggestion, 
merits  examination.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
transference  which  takes  place  in  unilateral  paralysis 
only  occurs  after  a  great  convulsive  discharge  in  the 
limb  to  which  the  paralysis  is  transferred,  resembling 
a  partial  attack  of  epilepsy.  When  a  bilateral 
paralysis  is  subjected  to  sesthesiogenic  action,  the  cor- 
responding impulse  is   substituted  for  it.     The  follow- 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.      345 

ing  example  will  suffice.     When  X was  in  a  state 

of  somnambulism,  we  suggested  to  her  that  she  could 
no  lonorer  twirl  her  thumbs.  She  resisted  the  suq^- 
gestion,  saying  that  she  could  twirl  them,  and  she  did 
twirl  them,  but  when  the  suggestion  was  repeated  she 
stopped  short.  She  was  then  awakened,  and  requested 
to  make  the  movement  in  question;  she  tried  to  cross 
her  hands,  and  was  unable  to  do  so.  A  small  magnet 
was  then  placed  at  the  back  of  her  head,  on  the  left  side, 
without  her  being  aware  of  it.  After  it  had  been  there 
a  few  moments,  she  crossed  her  hands  and  twirled  her 
thumbs.  Presently  she  desisted,  saying  that  she  did  not 
know  how  to  do  it,  then  resumed  the  movement,  and 
continued  it  for  ^ve  minutes  without  interruption, 
twirling  her  thumbs  now  in  one  direction,  now  in 
another.  Meanwhile  she  talked  of  her  friends  among 
the  patients,  without  thinking  of  what  her  fingers  were 
about.  We  have  already  observed  that  the  inverse 
effect  is  obtained  by  applying  magnetic  excitement  to 
a  subject  who  has  received  the  suggestion  of  a  motor 
impulse ;  in  this  case  the  movement  is  paralysed. 

It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  in  the  case  of  many 
subjects  a  simple  peripheral  excitement,  such  as  the 
compression  of  a  limb,  produces  a  similar  inversion  of 
the  physiological  state;  the  corresponding  paralysis  is 
substituted  for  the  impulse,  or  the  impulse  for  the  paralysis. 
It  is  therefore  probable  that  the  magnet  only  acts  as  an 
unconscious  peripheral  excitement,  of  which  the  efficacy 
depends  on  the  subject's  physical  condition. 

What  we  have  said  of  hallucinations,  suggestions  of 
acts,  the  paralysis  of  the  senses,  etc.,  also  applies  to  motor 
paralysis.     These  comparatively   simple    and    objective 


346  AKIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

plienomena  should  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  study 
of  those  which  are  more  delicate  and  complex.  We 
think  that  motor  paralysis,  the  first  order  of  systematic 
paralysis,  naturally  leads  the  observer  to  the  study  of 
the  paralysis  of  the  will,  which  has  been  termed  ahoulia. 
In  order  to  make  the  meaning  of  this  word  intelligible, 
we  may  mention  one  of  Bennett's  patients,  who  was 
thirsty  and  requested  the  servant  to  bring  a  glass  of 
water.  When  the  glass  was  presented  to  her  on  a 
tray,  the  patient  could  not  make  up  her  mind  to  take 
it,  although  she  wished  to  drink  and  her  arm  was  not 
paralysed. 

One  of  the  present  writers  *  has  observed  that  when 
aboulia  is  produced  by  suggestion,  it  may  become  the 
source  of  delirious  impressions  which  tend  to  become 
general.  A  subject  who  has  been  rendered  incapable 
of  seizing  a  given  object  will  go  on  to  say  that  it  is 
not  worth  having,  and  will  reject  all  the  objects  which 
resemble  it. 

We  must  now  point  out  the  analogy  between  aboulia 
and  systematic  paralysis ;  these  two  phenomena  cannot 
be  distinguished  by  any  objective  character.  It  can 
only  be  said  that  aboulia  is  an  attenuated  form  of 
paralysis,  but  that  it  is  at  its  maximum  intensity  equiva- 
lent to  paralysis.  Suppose  that  a  subject  affected  by 
aboulia  has  at  first  experienced  a  certain  reluctance  to 
take  up  a  pen  and  write,  and  gradually  becomes  incapable 
of  doing  so.  At  this  point,  his  incapacity  cannot  be 
distinguished  from  a  psychical  paralysis  of  the  move- 
ments employed  in  writing. 

It  may  also  be  said  that  aboulia  is  a  more  complex 

•  Ch.  F4c6,  Impuissance  et  pessimi^me  (Tievue  PU'dosophique^^nXy^  1886). 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.      347 

state  than  systematic  paralysis.  To  take,  again,  a  case 
of  agraphia,  a  subject  affected  by  aboulia  may  be  able  to 
write  anything  except  his  signature,  as  was  the  case  with 
a  notary  observed  by  Billod,  while  a  subject  affected  by 
normal  agraphia  is  unable  to  write  anything  at  all. 
This  difference  is  not,  however,  opposed  to  the  fact  that 
aboulia  consists  in  a  functional  paralysis  of  one  order 
of  movements  while  all  others  are  retained ;  it  is  in  some 
sense  an  agraphia,  but  of  a  more  systematic  kind. 

Whether,  therefore,  we  have  to  do  with  total  paralysis, 
with  systematic  paralysis,  or  with  aboulia,  the  motor 
disturbance  in  correspondence  with  it  is  fundamentally 
the  same,  and  we  must  recognize  a  cause  which  is 
analogous  both  in  its  nature  and  site.  The  analogy 
between  these  three  phenomena  can  be  illustrated  by 
experiments  in  suggestion,  performed  on  hypnotic  sub- 
jects. We  have  seen  that  total  paralysis  and  systematic 
paralysis  produce  in  some  cases  an  augmentation  of 
force  in  the  opposite  limb.  This  is  also  the  case  in 
aboulia. 

Suppose  that  it  is  suggested  to  a  subject  that  he  will 
be  unable,  however  much  he  wishes  it,  to  open  a  table 
drawer  with  his  right  hand,  in  order  to  take  out  some- 
thing which  is  there;  if,  after  having  produced  this 
unilateral  aboulia,  a  dynamometer  is  placed  in  the 
subject's  hands,  it  will  be  ascertained  that  the  muscular 
force  of  the  right  arm  has  diminished,  while  that  of  the 
left  arm  has  increased. 

We  can  judge  from  this  example  of  the  value  of  a 
method  which  takes  phenomena  in  a  series.  Aboulia 
is  a  complex  pathological  fact  which  cannot  be  grasped 
at   once,  and   without  preparation;   we  might  as   well 


348  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

begin  geometry  with  the  study  of  curves.  Aboulia  can 
only  be  understood  after  we  have  studied  the  simpler 
phenomena,  which  are  more  easy  to  observe  and  analyse. 
We  consider  that  paralysis  by  suggestion  presents  the 
elementary  phenomena  which  should  serve  as  a  basis 
and  introduction  to  the  study  of  aboulia. 

In  short,  the  great  psychological  conclusion  which 
may  be  drawn  from  all  the  disturbances  of  motor  power, 
is  that  these  disturbances  are  directly  caused  by 
functional  modifications  of  the  motor  centres :  these  are 
the  true  causes  of  motor  paralysis,  whether  total,  syste- 
matic, or  phenomena  of  aboulia.  It  may  even  be  said 
that  in  a  case  of  total  paralysis  by  suggestion,  the  effects 
observed  are  the  same  as  when  a  knife  has  destroyed  the 
motor  centre  in  correspondence  with  the  paralysed  limb. 
The  mode  in  which  the  subject  interprets  the  motor 
disturbance  by  which  he  is  affected  is  an  altogether 
secondary  matter.  It  is  unimportant  whether  the  motive 
assigned  by  the  subject  for  his  impotence  is  that  he  can- 
not, or  that  he  will  not,  or  again — as  it  is  said  by  some 
subjects  affected  by  aboulia — that  he  is  not  able  to  exert 
his  will,  or  that  he  does  not  understand.  If  these  assertions 
were  taken  literally,  we  might  be  inclined  to  regard  these 
disturbances  of  the  motor  power  as  distinct  phenomena, 
instead  of  recognizing  the  fact  that  they  are  included  in 
the  same  order.  When  the  subject  says  that  he  cannot 
move  his  limb,  we  shall  see  in  this  inability  a  simple 
motor  paralysis.  When  the  subject  asserts  that  he  really 
desires  and  yet  is  unable  to  resolve  on  passing  through 
a  door,  a  lesion  of  the  will  may  be  diagnosed.  Finally, 
when  the  subject  says  he  has  forgotten  how  to  make  the 
movements   employed   in   writing,  such    agraphia  must 


PAEALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.     349 

be  ascribed  to  a  lesion  of  the  motor  memory.  Tiie 
logical  consequence  of  this  method  would  be  to  ignore 
the  fundamental  unity  of  these  three  motor  facts,  which 
are,  as  we  must  repeat,  only  variations  of  the  same  state, 
that  of  motor  paralysis. 

Our  object  in  this  study  of  the  facts  of  suggestion  is 
to  show  the  importance  of  hypnotism  as  a  psychological 
study.  Its  importance  was  advocated  many  years  ago, 
but  the  cause  of  animal  magnetism  was  so  much  com- 
promised by  erroneous  methods,  that  people  were  afraid 
of  entering  upon  such  questions.  After  Braid  had 
demonstrated  the  reality  of  a  nervous  state,  produced  by 
looking  fixedly  at  a  brilliant  object,  together  with  the 
possibility  of  producing,  by  verbal  suggestion,  many 
psychical  phenomena  in  the  hypnotized  subject,  it  might 
have  been  supposed  that  psychologists  would  at  length 
have  begun  to  study  these  facts,  in  which  they  were  so 
directly  interested.  This  was,  however,  by  no  means  the 
case.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  isolated  attempts, 
these  fruitful  studies  were  for  the  most  part  neglected, 
doubtless  from  the  dread  of  compromising  the  inquirer. 
It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  the  English  psychologists  of 
the  associationist  school — Stuart  Mill,  Bain,  and  Spencer 
— who,  although  not  experimenters,  strictly  so  called,  yet 
have  always  evinced  the  greatest  respect  for  experiment, 
never  thought  of  availing  themselves  of  the  precious 
documents  contained  in  the  writings  of  their  fellow- 
countrymen.  It  is  strange  that  they  did  not  understand 
that  these  afforded  the  finest  illustrations  of  the  general 
law  of  the  association  of  ideas  which  justly  appeared  to 
them  to  be  so  important. 

The  indifierence  displayed  by  psychologists  towards 
16 


350  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

hypnotism  was  such  a  well-known  and  established 
fact,  that  it  was  supposed  to  have  nothing  to  do  with 
psychology,  and  in  1871  Mathias  Duval  expressed  the 
current  opinion,  when  he  wrote  the  remarkable  article 
on  hypnotism  in  which  he  asked,  not  without  irony, 
"  Where  are  the  discoveries  of  hypnotism  ?  Where  are 
its  analyses  ?  Where  are  the  results  of  this  new  experi- 
mental philosophy  ?  " 

A  revolution  has  taken  place  since  that  epoch.  Pro- 
found hypnotism,  ^studied  with  so  much  precision  by 
Charcot,  has  triumphed  over  the  general  indifference 
which  stifles  inquiry.  It  is  now  generally  admitted  that 
hypnotism  constitutes  one  method  of  psychological  re- 
search, which  offers  the  twofold  advantage  of  enlarging 
and  isolating  the  states  of  consciousness. 

It  is  the  more  important  to  insist  on  this  fact,  since 
we  think  that  hypnotism  is  adapted  to  fill  up  a  breach. 
It  is  some  years  since  a  certain  set  of  writers  endeavoured 
to  establish  an  experimental  psychology  in  France,  in 
opposition  to  the  classic  psychology  which  is  still  supreme 
in  all  the  universities.  But  up  to  this  time  we  have 
been  unable  to  note  any  marked  distinction  between  the 
new  and  old  schools.  In  reply  to  the  inquiry  into 
its  characteristics,  we  are  told  in  the  first  place  of  a 
dislike  to  metaphysics.  But  this  is  only  a  name,  and 
it  is  hard  to  say  where  metaphysics  begin,  and  positive 
science  ends.  Again,  it  has  been  said  that  the  new 
psychology  is  experimental.  But  in  order  to  be  experi- 
mental it  is  necessary  to  perform  experiments,  and  we 
must  ask  where  these  are  to  be  found.  They  are  few  in 
number,  and  chiefly  consist  of  observations  relative  to 
the  measure  of  sensations,  the  time  of  reaction,  etc.     It 


PARALYSIS  BY  SUGGESTION:  MOTOR  PARALYSIS.     351 

seems  to  us  that  hypnotism,  in  association  with  the 
clinical  observation  of  mental  and  nervous  diseases, 
would  afford  to  the  new  school  the  method  of  which  it 
is  in  search,  and  would  furnish  conclusions  founded  on 
experiment. 


352  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM, 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 


THE  APPLICATION   OF  HYPNOTISM  TO    THERAPEUTICS    AND 
EDUCATION. 


What  we  have  said  of  hypnotism,  and  particularly  of 
suggestion,  may  lead  the  reader  to  understand  the  virtue 
of  medicine  for  the  imagination,  of  which  the  importance 
has  already  been  intimated  by  earlier  writers.  Deslon 
asked  why,  if  medicine  for  the  imagination  was  the  most 
effective,  it  should  not  be  employed. 

We  must  be  permitted  to  dwell  for  a  moment  on  this 
medicine  for  the  imagination,  which  is  entitled  to  the 
name  of  suggestive  therapeutics.  The  process  is  as 
follows.  Influenced  by  a  persistent  idea,  suggested  by 
external  circumstances,  a  paralysis  is  developed.  The 
physician  makes  use  of  his  authority  to  suggest  the  idea 
of  an  inevitable,  incontestable  cure,  and  the  paralysis  is 
cured  accordingly.  This  cure,  as  well  as  the  develop- 
ment of  functional  disturbance,  was  directly  effected  by 
an  idea.  An  idea  may,  therefore,  be,  according  to  circum- 
stances, a  pathogenic  and  a  therapeutic  agent.  This 
notion  is  not  new,  but  since  it  was  misinterpreted,  it  has 
remained  unfruitful* 

*  Ch.  Fere,  La  medicine  d" imagination  {Progrcs  Me'dicul,  p.  309,  1884, 
pp.  717,  741,  760,  1886). 


APPLICATION  OF  HYPNOTISM  TO  THERAPEUTICS.   353 

Diseases  have  been  termed  imaginary,  or  diseases 
caused  by  the  imagination,  and  this  confusion  of  terms 
has  confirmed  the  confusion  of  ideas.  We  have,  however, 
just  shown,  especially  by  means  of  the  facts  which  relate 
to  paralysis  by  suggestion,  that  diseases  caused  by  the 
imagination — that  is,  produced  by  a  fixed  idea — are  real 
diseases,  and,  at  any  rate  in  some  cases,  display  undis- 
puted objective  symptoms. 

Since  the  existence  of  real  diseases,  produced  by 
means  of  the  imagination,  is  proved,  it  is  thereby  proved 
that  imaginary  diseases  do  not  and  cannot  exist;  by 
this  we  mean  purely  fictitious  diseases,  since  as  soon 
as  the  subject  has  accepted  the  fixed  idea  that  he  is 
aflfected  by  any  functional  disturbance,  such  a  disturbance 
is  in  some  degree  developed.  It  should  be  added  that 
these  diseases,  produced  by  means  of  the  imagination,  are 
not  merely  influenced  by  a  local  disturbance;  the  subject 
who  allows  himself  to  be  dominated  by  this  idea  of  disease 
must  be  peculiarly  excitable  and  open  to  suggestion ;  he 
must  be  endowed  with  a  condition  of  congenital  psychical 
weakness  which  is  frequently  found  in  conjunction  with 
more  or  less  strongly  marked  neuropathic  manifestations, 
or  with  physical  malformations.  As  Lasegue  observed, 
not  every  one  who  pleases  can  be  hypochondriac. 

This  distinction  throws  light  on  the  therapeutics  of 
diseases  produced  by  means  of  the  imagination,  or 
suQ^ojested  diseases. 

When  one  of  these  victims  to  hypochondria,  anaemic 
and  emaciated,  who  are  usually  called  malades  imagi- 
naires,  has  recourse  to  medicine,  on  the  plea  of  suffering 
pain  or  some  other  subjective  disturbance,  he  is  usually 
told  that  it   is   of   no   importance,   that   he   is   rather 


354  ANIMAL   MAGNETISM. 

fanciful  and  should  think  less  about  his  health,  and  some 
anodyne  is  carelessly  prescribed.  The  patient,  who  is 
really  suffering  from  the  pain  he  has  suggested  to  himself, 
feels  convinced  that  his  malady  is  not  known,  and  that 
nothing  can  be  done  for  him.  The  idea  that  his  com- 
plaint is  incurable  becomes  intense  in  proportion  to  his 
high  opinion  of  his  physician's  skill,  and  thus  the  patient, 
who  was  suffering  from  the  chronic  affection  suggested 
by  his  imagination,  often  goes  away  incurable. 

Those  who  undertake  miraculous  cures  act  very 
differently.  They  do  not  deny  the  existence  of  the 
disease,  but  they  assert  that  it  may  be  cured  by  super- 
natural power.  They  act  by  means  of  suggestion,  and 
by  gradually  inculcating  the  idea  that  the  disease  is 
curable,  until  the  subject  accepts  it.  The  cure  is  some- 
times effected  by  the  suggestion,  and  when  it  is  said  to 
be  by  saving  faith,  the  expression  used  is  rigorously 
scientific.  These  miracles  should  no  longer  be  denied, 
but  we  should  understand  their  genesis  and  learn  to 
imitate  them. 

There  are,  therefore,  no  imaginary  diseases,  but  there 
are  diseases  due  to  the  imagination,  and  accompanied 
by  real  functional  disturbances.  Such  disturbances  may 
be  developed  under  the  influence  of  spontaneous,  acci- 
dental, or  deliberate  suggestion,  and  they  may  be  cured 
under  the  influence  of  another  suggestion  of  equal  in- 
tensity working  in  an  inverse  direction.  The  moral 
treatment  ought  not,  therefore,  to  consist  in  denying  the 
existence  of  the  disease,  but  in  asserting  that  it  is  sus- 
ceptible of  cure,  that  the  cure  has  actually  begun,  and 
will  soon  be  completed. 

When  a  believer  associates  the  Deity  with  his  idea 


APPLICATION  OF  HYPNOTISM  TO  THERAPEUTICS.  355 

of  cure,  he  is  accustomed  to  expect  it  to  be  sudden  and 
complete,  as  the  result  of  a  definite  religious  manifesta- 
tion; and  this,  in  fact,  often  occurs.  We  had  a  well-known 
instance  at  the  Salpetriere,  when  a  woman  of  the  name 
of  Etcheverry  was,  after  her  devotions  in  the  month  of 
May,  suddenly  cured  of  an  hemiplegia  and  contracture, 
by  which  she  had  been  affected  for  seven  years.  Only 
a  slight  weakness  of  the  side  remained,  which  disap- 
peared in  a  few  days,  and  which  could  be  explained  by 
the  prolonged  inaction  of  the  muscles.  This  may  be 
termed  an  experimental  miracle,  shice  the  physicians 
had  prepared  for  it  beforehand,  having  for  a  long  time 
previously  suggested  to  the  subject  that  she  would  be 
cured  when  a  certain  religious  ceremony  took  place,  and 
it  is  a  miracle,  which  explains  the  numerous  cures  by  the 
laying-on  of  hands  which  are  recorded  in  the  Bible.  If 
we  do  not  go  further  back  than  the  last  century,  sugges- 
tion explains  the  cures  by  Greatrakes,  the  exorcisms  by 
Gassner,  Mesmer's  successes,  and  the  miracles  performed 
at  the  tomb  of  the  deacon  Paris  in  the  cemetery  of 
Saint  Medard ;  and  in  our  day,  in  the  famous  caves  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees. 

The  resources  of  the  physician,  who  does  not  profess 
to  be  a  thaumaturgist,  are  more  scanty.  When  he  is 
consulted  by  a  patient  whose  disease  has  a  psychical 
origin,  he  is  unable,  unless  in  some  exceptional  circum- 
stances, to  inspire  confidence  in  remedies  which  are  not 
more  or  less  gradual,  but  whatever  they  are,  he  must 
prescribe  with  firmness  and  authority.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  the  hydropathic  treatment  of  some  forms 
of  hysteria  has  afforded  more  speedy  results  than  other 
modes  of  treatment,  merely  from  the  fact  that  suggestion 


356  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

has  been  employed  at  the  same  time.  This  remark 
also  applies  to  massage,  etc.,  under  analogous  circum- 
stances. 

In  many  cases  suggestion  may  become  a  valuable 
therapeutic  agent.  In  addition  to  the  paralysis  and 
spasms  which  are  of  psychical  origin,  it  has  a  great  in- 
fluence on  nervous  or  hysterical  anorexia,  and  on  the 
anaemic  disturbance  which  is  generally  developed  on  an 
hysterical  soil  (A,  Voisin,  Seglas,  Lombroso,  Dufour,  etc.). 
Some  weight  must  be  given  to  several  facts  of  this  nature, 
reported  by  Braid,  Charpignon,  Liebault,  Bernheim, 
Beaunis,  etc.*  It  is,  therefore,  useful  in  such  cases  to 
inquire  into  the  most  favourable  conditions  of  suggestion, 
to  ascertain  whether  the  subject  is  susceptible  to  hypno- 
tism, or  peculiarly  sensitive  to  any  mode  of  suggestion 
which  is  employed  with  confidence  and  authority. 

It  should  be  observed  that  a  neuropathic  state  does 
not  occur  suddenly,  and  is  not  created  by  the  person 
affected  by  it.  It  is  generally  the  result  of  a  progressive 
and  accumulated  hereditary  degeneration.  The  subject 
under  treatment  does  not  essentially  difier  from  the  rest 
of  his  family,  who  usually  sufier  to  some  extent  from 
the  same  evil ;  the  nervous  patient  lives  in  a  nervous 
environment.  If  suggestion  has  taken  part  in  the 
development  of  the  aflection  in  question,  the  moral 
treatment  may  be  inefiectual  because  the  pathogenic 
idea  continues  to  be  cultivated  in  this  morbid  environ- 
ment. Such  treatment  will  only  have  a  chance  of  success 
when,  as  a  measure  of  moral  hygiene,  we   isolate   the 

*  Char I'ignon,  Etude  sur  la  medicine  animique  et  viialiste  (18^4);  Lie- 
bault, Du  sommeil  etdes  etats  analogues  (1864);  Bernheim,  De  la  suggestion 
et  de  ses  applications  a.  la  the'rapeutique  (1886). 


APPLICATION   OF  HYPNOTISM   TO   THERAPEUTICS.     357 

patient,  and  tliis  is  still  more  necessary  in  the  so-called 
epidemic  phenomena  of  suggestion. 

We  are  particularly  anxious  to  call  attention  to  the 
effect  of  moral  treatment,  and  to  the  part  taken  in  it  by 
suggestion.  This  is  no  new  thing;  when  the  so-called 
fulminating  pills  are  administered,  suggestion  is  em- 
ployed in  the  pilular  form,  and  when  pure  water  is 
injected  under  the  skin,  suggestion  takes  a  hypodermic 
form.  This  medicine  for  the  imagination  is  particularly 
to  be  recommended  in  that  category  of  diseases  which 
are  of  definite  psychical  origin. 

This  is  not  the  place  for  insisting  on  the  special  indi- 
cations of  suggestion  in  therapeutics.  The  study  just 
made  is  enough  to  show  to  what  extent  it  may  act  on 
motor,  sensory  or  psychical  phenomena,  and  conse- 
quently how  it  may  be  usefully  employed  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  dynamic  disturbances  which  are  due  to  the 
influence  of  a  psychical  action,  of  a  moral  shock,  or  even 
of  a  peripheral  excitement.  Its  effect  cannot  any  longer 
be  disputed.  It  is,  however,  still  difficult  to  give  a  rigor- 
ously scientific  account  of  the  results  obtained,  since  few 
observations  have  as  yet  been  published,  and  in  some  of 
these  it  is  impossible  to  find  an  objective  characteristic 
of  hypnosis.  Others,  again,  are  incomplete,  or  published 
by  incompetent  persons,  whose  descriptions  do  not  carry 
with  them  a  conviction  of  the  reality  of  the  morbid  state 
in  question.  Finally,  precisely  on  account  of  the  nature  of 
its  action,  which  is  exclusively  exerted  on  diseases  in  which 
there  is  no  definite  material  lesion,  and  which  are,  there- 
fore, purely  dynamic,  suggestion  only  cures  affections  which 
are  capable  of  spontaneous  modification,  or  which  are 
influenced  by  various  external  agents.    At  present,  there- 


358  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

foro,  it  is  difficult  to  establish  the  real  value  of  this  mode 
of  treatment,  although  less  difficult  than  in  the  case  of 
many  remedies  in  general  use.  It  can  only  be  said  that 
it  is  founded  on  accurate  notions  of  mental  physiology, 
and  consequently  on  a  rational  basis. 

Medicine  for  the  imagination  is  distinct  from  hypnotic 
therapeutics,  in  which  the  artificial  sleep  is  itself  the 
curative  agent,  in  whatever  way  it  may  have  been  pro- 
duced. These  two  therapeutical  processes,  artificial  sleep 
and  suggestion,  have  sometimes  been  erroneously  con- 
founded.*    They  are  far  from  being  of  equal  value. 

The  hypnotic  sleep  often  exerts  a  merely  suspensive 
and  momentary  action  on  functional  disturbances,  such 
as  neuralgia,  contractures,  etc.;  but,  taken  by  itself,  it 
rarely  effects  the  complete  disappearance  of  these  pheno- 
mena, unless  they  are  of  an  essentially  fugitive  nature. 
It  should  also  be  noted  that  in  many  cases  hypnotic 
sleep,  like  other  forms  of  artificial  sleep  produced  by- 
chloroform,  morphia,  etc.,  may  cause  neuropathic  affec- 
tions which  the  subject  has  not  experienced  before. 
Many  hysterical  patients  were  attacked  by  convulsions, 
when  assembled  round  Mesmer's  haquet,  and  magnetizers 
have  often  produced  contractures  of  a  cataleptic  character. 
This  fact  must  not  be  ignored,  and  it  shows  that  the 
employment  of  hypnotism  as  a  therapeutic  agent  should 
not  be  undertaken  rashly. 

When,  however,  we  have  to  do  with  strongly  marked 
cases  of  hysteria,  in  which  the  convulsive  attacks  are 
intense,  so  that  the  artificial  sleep  can  only  produce 
affections  which  existed  previously,  it  has  been  ascer- 

*  Grasset,  Du  sommeil  provoqu^  comme  agent  th^rapeutique  (or  thera- 
peutic suggestion,  Semaine  medicate,  p.  205,  1886). 


APPLICATION  OF  HYPNOTISM  TO  EDUCATION.     359 

tained  that  the  number  and  intensity  of  these  attacks 
may  be  greatly  diminished  by  hypnotic  treatment.  Many 
of  the  hysterical  patients  of  the  Salpetriere,  who  have 
been  admitted  on  account  of  their  attacks,  enjoy  a  respite 
from  them  whenever  they  are  thrown  into  the  hypnotic 
sleep,  even  when  it  is  not  accompanied  by  suggestion. 

It  should  also  be  observed  that  the  nervous  sleep  is 
something  more  than  a  simple  hypnotic  action.  The 
subject  is  aware,  when  hypnotized  by  a  magnetizer,  that 
the  object  of  his  treatment  is  therapeutical,  and  the  arti- 
ficial sleep  may  in  some  cases  be  regarded  as  pertaining 
to  the  medicine  of  the  imagination.  Suggestion  is 
present,  whether  it  be  the  work  of  the  patient  or  of  his 
physician. 

II. 

The  employment  of  suggestion  in  education  is  pro- 
bably as  ancient  as  the  art  of  teaching,  and  interesting 
remarks  on  the  subject  may  be  found  in  many  educational 
works.  Fechtersleben,  in  his  Hygihne  de  Vdnie,  insists 
on  the  benefit  of  convincing  children  that  they  have  a 
gift  for  some  branch  of  study,  in  order  to  develop  their 
capacity.  Gratiolet  remarks  that  certain  gestures  and 
attitudes  will  develop  correlative  tendencies  in  children.* 
But  it  would  be  a  serious  mistake  to  subject  children  of 
normal  constitution  to  the  regular  practice  of  suggestion  ; 
there  would  be  a  great  risk  of  making  them  into  auto  - 
mata,  which  is  by  no  means  the  end  of  education.  It  is 
more  easy  to  defend  the  application  of  hypnotic  suggestion 
to  vicious  children.    It  is  probable  that  it  might  succeed, 

*  Leuret  and  Gratiolet,  Anatomie  comparer  du  sydeme  nerveux,  vol.  ii 
p.  6,^>0. 


360  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

but  it  would  be  difficult  to  prove  this  by  indisputable 
facts,  for  it  is  certain  that  some  of  the  vicious  children 
who  escape  from  premature  insanity  or  from  a  progress 
in  vice,  pass  by  spontaneous  evolution  into  a  psychical 
state  which  is  almost  normal.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
of  the  vagrant  children  who  have  been  confined  in 
asylums  are  found  under  the  same  conditions  as  those 
whose  penal  sentence  confirms  the  motives  for  avoiding 
vice.  In  these  cases  hypnotic  suggestion  only  plays  the 
part  of  penitentiary  suggestion,  and  its  utility  is  doubtful. 
The  efficacy  of  suggestion  by  teachers  may,  as  we 
believe,  be  shown  by  the  possibility  of  modifying  certain 
instincts  by  suggestion  in  the  case  of  animals.  One  of  the 
present  writers  has  repeatedly  witnessed  a  curious  prac- 
tice employed  by  a  farmer's  wife  in  the  district  of  Caux. 
When  a  hen  has  laid  a  certain  number  of  eggs  in  a  nest 
of  her  own  selection,  and  has  begun  to  sit,  if  there  is  any 
reason  for  transferring  her  to  some  other  nest,  the  hen's 
head  is  put  under  her  wing,  and  she  is  swung  to  and  fro 
until  she  is  put  to  sleep.  This  is  soon  done,  and  she  is 
then  placed  in  the  nest  designed  for  her;  when  she 
awakes,  she  has  no  recollection  of  her  own  nest,  and 
readily  adopts  the  strange  eggs.  By  means  of  this 
process,  hens  may  sometimes  be  made  to  sit  which  had 
shown  a  previous  disinclination  to  do  so.  This  modifi- 
cation of  instinct  by  suggestion  seems  to  show  that  the 
educational  use  of  suggestion  is  not  so  absurd  as  some 
authors  assert  it  to  be. 


(    361    ) 


CHAPTER  XrV. 

HYPNOTISM  AND  RESPONSIBILITY. 

"  Non  omnes  dorraiunt  qui  clauses  liabeut  oeulos.** 

Since  the  past  history  of  hypnotism  verged  upon  the 
marvellous,  it  had  the  privilege  of  exciting  the  curiosity, 
not  only  of  learned  men,  but  of  people  in  general. 
Exhibitions  with  which  science  had  nothing  tO'  do  made 
the  public  acquainted  with  a  certain  number  of  pheno- 
mena of  which  a  criminal  use  might  be  made;  and 
hypnotic  sleep  and  suggestion  have  played  a  part  in 
several  judicial  dramas.*  One  of  the  present  writers  was 
therefore  justified  in  being  the  first  to  call  attention  to  the 
study  of  hypnotism  from  the  medico-legal  point  of  view, 
in  a  paper  which  only  treated  of  profound  hypnotism, 
characterised  by  symptoms  of  a  physical  kind.j   Li^geois 

*  Tardieu,  Etude  medico-leg  ale  sur  les  attentats  auz  moews,  pp.  88,  et 
seq.  (Paris,  1878) ;  Brouardel,  Accusation  de  viol  accompli  pendant  le 
sommeil  hypnotique  (Annales  dliygiene  et  de  me'dicine  Jegale^  Jauuary,  1879) ; 
Motet,  Annales  me'dico-psychologiques,  p.  468  (1881). 

t  Ch.  Fere,  Les  hypnotiques  hyste'riques,  conside'r^es  comme  sujets  ddex- 
p^rience  en  medicine  mentale :  illusions,  hallucinations,  impulsions  irr€- 
sidibles  provoqu^s ;  leur  importance  au  point  de  vue  me'dico-legale  (Soci^te 
medico- psychologique,'M.a,y,  1883).  J.  Charpignon  (Rapports  du  magn^lisme 
avec  la  jurisprudence  et  la  medicine  legale,  1860)  has  been  chiefly  coueerned 
with  an  inquiry  whether  the  practice  of  magnetism  does  not  constitute 
the  criminal  offence  of  an  illegal  practice  of  medicine. 


362  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

has  subsequently  communicated  to  the  Academy  of  the 
Moral  and  Political  Sciences  a  paper  on  the  same  subject, 
regarded  from  a  somewhat  different  point  of  view,  and 
this  has  given  rise  to  lively  discussions.*  We  think  it 
may  be  profitable  to  consider  this  subject,  which  is  indeed 
entitled  to  further  development. 

Most  of  the  writers  on  this  question  have  been  chiefly 
occupied  in  throwing  light  on  the  possibility  of  accom- 
plishing criminal  acts  by  means  of  hypnotism,  but  they 
have  not  considered  the  question  of  proof  They  have 
not  asked  under  what  conditions  judges  would  admit  the 
reality  of  the  facts  of  hypnotism  brought  before  them. 
They  have  not  understood  that  in  a  medico-legal  study, 
the  demonstration  of  the  hypnotic  state  is  the  first 
question,  and  the  most  important  of  all ;  the  others  are 
comparatively  unimportant,  since  if  the  hypnotism  is  not 
proved,  all  the  consequences  which  may  be  drawn  from 
it  become  illusory.  It  need  hardly  be  added  that  a 
scientific  demonstration  of  hypnotism  can  only  be  made 
by  means  of  objective  and  material  signs.  Several  ob- 
servers have  accepted  as  proofs  the  honesty  and  good 
faith  of  their  subjects,  but  these  words  do  not  involve 
any  objective  sign.  Moral  proofs  must  always  remain 
personal  to  those  who  appeal  to  them,  and  cannot  be 
taken  into  account  in  a  medico-legal  study.  We  cannot 
hope  to  convince  judges  of  the  reality  of  a  state  in  which 
all  the  phenomena  may  be  simulated.  To  accept  the 
fact  hypnotism  on  the  ground  of  moral  proofs  would  be 
to  open  the  door  to  innumerable  abuses  of  the  most 
serious  character. 

*  Liegeois,  De  la  suggestion  hypnofique  dans  ses  rapports  avec  le  droit 
civil  et  le  droit  criminel  (-4c.  des  sc.  m.  et  p.,  April  and  May,  1884). 


HYPNOTISM  AND  RESPONSIBILITY.  863 

The  medico-legal  question  may  be  briefly  stated  in 
the  following  terms.  An  individual  appeals  to  the  law, 
asserting  that  he  has  been  the  victim  of  some  violence, 
or  of  a  suggestion,  after  he  had  been  thrown  into  the 
hypnotic  state.  It  may  be  admitted  that  the  assertion 
is  probable,  if  it  is  proved  experimentally  that  he  is 
susceptible  to  hypnotism,  and  that  he  displays  a  certain 
number  of  objective,  characteristical  phenomena,  but  this 
proof  can  only  be  obtained  if  he  voluntarily  submits 
to  be  subjected  to  experiment.  Again,  an  individual 
accused  of  a  crime  or  an  oifence,  may  plead  that  he  acted 
under  the  influence  of  an  impulse  suggested  during  the 
hypnotic  sleep,  and  in  this  case  also  it  is  necessary  to 
obtain  a  material  proof  that  the  subject  is  susceptible 
to  hypnotism.  As  a  general  rule,  whenever  an  accused 
person  pleads  hypnotism,  the  fact  should  be  proved  by 
subjecting  him  to  experimental  observation. 

Another  situation  may  occur,  A  witness  may  be 
suspected  of  making  a  deposition  dictated  by  hypnotic 
suggestion.  If  the  fact  of  suggestion  is  established  by 
material  proof,  the  fact  that  he  has  borne  false  witness 
will  also  be  demonstrated.  If  the  material  fact  cannot 
be  established,  the  difficulty  is  almost  insuperable,  since 
an  individual  cannot  be  constrained  to  submit  to  hypno- 
tization,  any  more  than  to  take  chloroform  or  haschish. 

The  conditions  which  enable  an  expert  to  affirm 
that  a  person  is  susceptible  to  hypnotism  are  as  follows. 
The  hypnotized  subject  must  display  its  physical  phe- 
nomena, and  must  be  a  subject  of  profound  hypnotism. 
Profound  hypnotism  may  occur  either  in  a  perfect  or 
imperfect  form ;  that  is,  some  of  the  established  pheno- 
mena may  be  absent  in  a  given  subject  without  affecting 


364  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

its  general  aspect,  if  a  sufficient  number  of  characteristic 
phenomena  remain. 

In  slight  hypnotism,  in  the  states  described  as  fasci- 
nation, magnetic  sleep,  etc.,  subjects  appear  to  be  pecu- 
liarly liable  to  suggestion.  It  is  possible  to  develop 
in  them  catalepsoid  states,  muscular  rigidity,  fixed  atti- 
tudes, paralysis,  anaesthesia,  various  hallucinations  and 
impulses ;  but  not  the  special  and  characteristic  states 
described  above  under  the  names  of  catalepsy,  lethargy, 
and  artificial  somnambulism.  These  subjects  only  dis- 
play a  few  physical  phenomena  which  have  not  yet  been 
the  object  of  a  regular  nosographic  study.  The  strict 
attention  with  which  the  facts  should  be  examined,  must 
be  redoubled  in  such  cases,  since  the  only  criterion 
is  afibrded  by  physical  phenomena.  Until  we  know 
more  of  the  subject,  a  person  who  displays  none  of 
the  physical  characteristics  of  hypnotism  cannot  plead 
it  as  a  justification.  It  is  practically  impossible  to 
define  in  any  other  way  the  limits  of  normal  suggesti- 
bility. 

After  having  shown  how  the  expert  may  satisfy 
himself  that  a  subject  is  susceptible  to  hypnotism,  we 
must  consider  the  special  circumstances  in  which  it  is 
possible  to  admit  the  probability  of  hypnotization. 

The  hypnotic  sleep,  which  is  produced  with  so  much 
difficulty  and  delay  in  fresh  subjects,  occurs  with 
alarming  rapidity  in  those  who  have  been  long  under 
treatment.  Some  of  our  patients  are  hypnotized  at 
once  by  a  single  abrupt  gesture,  and  this  may  be 
effected  in  all  places  alike,  and  at  any  hour  of  the  day. 
If  we  meet  one  of  these  subjects  crossing  the  courtyard, 
an  exclamation  or  abrupt  gesture  will  cause  her  to  stop 


HYPNOTISM  AND  RESPONSIDILITY.  365 

short  and  become  motionless  in  catalepsy.  She  may 
be  as  instantaneously  awakened  by  breathing  on  her 
forehead  or  eyes.  The  hypnotic  sleep  may,  therefore, 
be  produced  and  brought  to  an  end  in  an  extremely 
short  time,  we  might  even  say  during  the  passage  from 
one  door  to  another.  This  is  a  somewhat  important 
fact  from  the  medico-legal  point  of  view.  And  again, 
a  suggestion  may  be  given  in  a  sleep  of  very  short 
duration.  We  have  observed  that  in  the  course  of 
fifteen  seconds  we  could  throw  a  subject  into  a 
lethargy,  then  into  somnambulism,  suggest  an  act, 
and  then  awake  him.  -  It  is,  therefore,  possible  that 
an  individual  might  make  use  of  the  fifteen  seconds 
in  which  he  found  himself  alone  with  a  susceptible 
subject  to  inculcate  an  idea,  an  hallucination,  or  an  im- 
pulse. We  must  not  rely  on  a  question  of  time  in 
maintaining  the  impossibility  of  such  a  fact,  since  the 
time  required  to  hypnotize  and  suggest  to  an  habitual 
subject  of  experiment  is  so  extremely  short. 

Experience  also  shows  that  we  must  not  accept 
the  subject's  assertions  in  estimating  the  duration  of 
hypnotic  sleep.  The  subject  is  unable  to  measure  the 
length  of  time  she  has  slept,  and  if  she  attempts  to  do 
so  she  makes  the  gravest  mistakes.  For  instance,  one 
of  our  subjects  whom  we  had  hypnotized  for  a  period 
which  did  not  exceed  twenty  seconds,  believed  that  she 
had  slept  an  hour,  and  in  other  cases  there  was  equal 
miscalculation.  The  hypnotic  subject  has  no  land- 
marks by  which  to  measure  the  void  which  this  sleep 
produces  in  the  normal  course  of  life.  We  must  not, 
therefore,  deny  the  reality  of  an  hypnotic  suggestion, 
merely  because   the  experimenter  had  only  a  minute's 


366  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

conoact  with  the  subject,  although  she  asserts  that  she 
has  slept  for  hours. 

We  unfortunately  possess  but  few  documents  bear- 
ing on  the  question  how  far  the  subject  is  aware  that 
he  has  been  hypnotized.  Some  of  those  on  whom  we 
have  been  performing  experiments  for  a  whole  morn- 
ing, do  not  know  how  often  they  have  been  hypno- 
tized and  awakened  ;  but  they  have  a  general  knowledge 
of  having  been  subjected  to  hypnotism.  They  know  this 
from  an  impression  of  cold,  a  shivering  which  often  lasts 
long  after  they  are  awake.  But  this  sign  is  not  of  much 
value,  since  it  may  not  only  be  absent,  but  destroyed 
by  suggestion,  and  it  is  less  marked  in  proportion  to 
the  shortness  of  the  sleep. 

In  cases  of  profound  hypnotism  there  is  often  an 
oblivion  of  what  occurred  during  the  hypnotic  sleep. 
This  oblivion  is  complete  when  the  experimenter  has 
taken  care  to  tell  the  hypnotized  subject  that  he  will 
remember  absolutely  nothing.  The  oblivion  is  also 
rendered  more  profound  when  the  subject  has  not  been 
directly  recalled  to  the  waking  state,  but  has  passed  from 
somnambulism  into  lethargy,  from  lethargy  again  into 
somnambulism,  and  thence  into  the  waking  state.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  amnesia  is  often  only  partial  when 
the  subject  is  awakened  immediately  after  the  occur- 
rence of  a  given  fact;  a  more  or  less  vivid  recollection 
of  it  still  remains.  The  hypnotic  subject  seems  to  be 
in  the  same  situation  as  a  man  who  awakes  from  normal 
sleep ;  he  has  a  vague  recollection  of  what  he  has  seen, 
or  of  what  has  been  said  to  him  during  sleep,  and  he 
thinks  that  he  has  been  dreaming.  Finally,  the  events 
which  occurred  during  hypnosis  recur  to  his  mind  with 


HYPNOTISM  AND  RESPONSIBILITY.  867 

great  force,  when  they  are  recalled  by  some  external 
object  or  circumstance. 

Thus  it  appears  that  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down 
an  absolute  rule  as  to  oblivion  on  awaking;  there  is, 
in  fact,  every  variety  of  case,  from  the  most  profound 
oblivion  to  the  most  lucid  recollection,  and  these  are 
all  entitled  to  careful  consideration  from  the  medico- 
legal point  of  view. 

A  suggested  amnesia  is  the  most  important  of  these 
situations.  It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  a 
suggestion  will  destroy  the  subject's  recollection  of  all 
which  has  occurred  to  her  during  hypnosis.  This  want 
of  memory,  which  may  either  occur  spontaneously  or  be 
artificially  produced,  is  possible  even  when  the  subject 
has  experienced  a  shock,  of  which  the  effects  are  painful 
or  more  or  less  enduring.  In  the  course  of  an  experi- 
ment, one  of  our  subjects,  who  was  in  a  state  of  lethargy, 
fell  down  and  knocked  her  head  violently  against  the 
floor.  She  was  not  awakened  by  this  excitement,  nor 
for  some  time  afterwards,  and  she  was  then  awakened  by 
breathing  on  her  face.  On  coming  to  herself,  the  subject 
was  astonished  by  the  pain  in  her  head;  she  had  the 
sensation  of  a  violent  blow  or  shock,  and  could  not 
understand  whence  it  came.  We  are,  therefore,  justified 
in  the  assertion  that  a  subject  of  profound  hypnotism 
may  undergo  all  sorts  of  violence  without  retaining  any 
recollection  or  consciousness  of  it,  unless  the  violence 
has  produced  permanent  lesions,  such  as  the  attrition 
of  the  tissues  resulting  from  a  violent  shock,  etc.  We 
even  think  it  possible  that  a  subject  might  be  violated 
in  the  hypnotic  state,  in  which  she  would  be  unable 
to  offer  any  resistance. 


368  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

We  turn  from  the  subject  who  has  forgotten  every- 
thing, to  the  subject  who  asserts  that  she  remembers 
everything,  in  order  to  consider  whether  her  story  is  to 
be  believed.  It  is  a  serious  question,  and  admits  of 
many  hypotheses. 

In  the  first  place,  the  subject  may  be  perfectly  honest, 
and  yet  the  victim  of  an  illusion.  When  a  subject  finds 
on  awaking  that  she  is  suffering  from  a  wound,  or  from 
some  serious  or  unpleasant  affection,  she  is  apt  to  look  for 
an  explanation,  and  sometimes  she  invents  an  explanation 
for  herself  Sometimes,  again,  she  accepts  it  from  a 
third  person,  but  in  all  cases  she  ends  by  suggesting  to 
herself  that  she  saw  things  occur  as  she  has  explained 
them ;  in  other  words,  the  explanation,  has  led  to  an 
hallucination  of  memory.  Thus  a  subject  who  has, 
during  hypnosis,  received  a  blow  from  a  third  person, 
may  explain  her  injury  by  the  supposition  that  she  fell 
down,  and  she  will  maintain  the  reality  of  this  imaginary 
fall  with  the  strongest  conviction.  The  medical  jurist 
must  be  on  his  guard  against  the  remarks  and  explana- 
tions adopted  by  the  subject  to  account  for  the  accidents 
which  happen  to  her,  and  her  assertions  should  not  be 
accepted  without  confirmation. 

The  subject  may  err  from  another  cause,  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  experimenter,  who  has  impressed  upon  her 
a  recollection  which  is  false.  It  is  impossible  for  the 
expert  to  steer  clearly  amid  all  these  phenomena,  and  to 
make  a  categorical  declaration  as  to  the  way  the  thing 
occurred. 

Finally,  the  subject  who  in  the  waking  state  remem- 
bers what  occurred  during  hypnosis,  may  simulate. 
This  danger  of  simulation  is  always  present  in  a  legal 


HYPNOTISM  AND  RESPONSIBILITY.  369 

case,  whatever  be  the  physical  state  of  the  subject. 
Even  in  a  case  of  profound  hypnotism,  we  must  not  blindly 
accept  whatever  is  related  by  the  subject.  The  testi- 
mony may  be  recorded,  and  taken  for  what  it  is  worth, 
in  conjunction  with  other  facts,  but  this  is  not  the 
business  of  the  expert. 

We  have  hitherto  regarded  the  subject  in  a  state  of 
repose,  and  we  must  now  consider  him  in  a  state  of 
activity,  influenced  by  suggestions  or  excitements.  We 
will  begin  with  the  study  of  hallucinations.  The  subject 
may,  for  instance,  be  induced  to  mistake  the  identity  of  a 
person,  or  to  accept  the  presence  of  one  who  is  really 
absent,  and  to  recognize  his  features,  voice,  etc.  The 
possible  consequences  of  this  illusion  or  hallucination  are 
evident.  If  an  unlawful  or  criminal  act  should  be  com- 
mitted on  the  subject,  or  in  her  presence,  an  accusation 
might  be  made  against  an  innocent  person,  and  it  would 
be  maintained  with  the  deepest  conviction.  The  illusion 
or  hallucination  might  apply  to  the  act  itself,  and  would 
lead  to  analogous  consequences. 

Some  writers  have  lately  returned  to  this  question, 
of  which  we  long  ago  noted  the  importance.  They 
devised  some  dramatic  experiments,  to  illustrate  the 
criminal  use  which  might  be  made  of  hypnotic  hallucina- 
tion, but  we  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  reproduce  them. 
It  seems  to  us  more  important  to  inquire  under  what 
conditions  these  facts  of  retrospective  hallucination  can  be 
adduced  in  a  court  of  justice.  As  we  have  already  said 
the  medico-legal  question  of  hypnotism  is  reduced  to  a 
question  of  diagnosis,  and  it  may  be  added  that  what- 
ever is  not  diagnostic  in  the  legal  questions  which  affect 
hypnotic    subjects   is   not    within   the   province   of  the 


370  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

physician.  The  expert  has  not  to  decide  upon  the 
reality  of  a  fact  of  suggestion,  but  on  its  possibility ; 
and  in  order  to  do  this,  he  must  establish  by  experiment 
the  fact  that  the  phenomena  under  dispute  can  be  repro- 
duced in  a  given  subject,  by  means  of  an  hypnotic 
suggestion.  We  are,  therefore,  concerned  to  know  what 
are  the  objective  signs  which  demonstrate  the  hallucina- 
tions produced  in  a  given  subject  to  be  genuine.  We 
propose  to  dwell  chiefly  on  hallucinations  of  vision, 
since  they  are  the  most  easy  to  examine,  and  we  can 
deduce  from  them  the  sincerity  of  the  hallucinations  of 
the  other  senses. 

Hallucinations  of  vision,  whether  induced  by  verbal 
suggestion,  or  by  any  other  process,  are  chiefly  charac- 
terized by  their  power  of  duplication,  either  when  a  prism 
is  placed  before  the  eyes,  or  when  a  mechanical  deviation 
is  eflfected.  The  hallucinatory  object  may  be  enlarged  or 
diminished  in  size  by  a  lens,  and  may  be  reflected  and 
rendered  ^mmetrical  by  a  mirror.  If  a  coloured  object 
is  in  question,  it  may  give  rise  to  a  subjective  sensation 
of  the  complementary  colour,  and  if  the  liallucination  is 
unilateral,  it  may  be  transferred  to  the  other  side  by  the 
action  of  the  magnet.  Finally,  if  the  imaginary  object 
is  brought  nearer,  or  withdrawn,  there  is  a  corresponding 
dilation  and  contraction  of  the  pupil.  These  movements 
to  accommodate  the  sight  occur  spontaneously  in  very 
few  cases,  and  only  under  known  conditions. 

It  should  be  added  that  in  the  case  of  some  subjects, 
the  general  sensibility  of  the  eye  is  profoundly  modified 
during  the  period  of  visual  hallucination;  there  is,  in 
fact,  speaking  g>enerally,  insensibility  of  the  conjunctiva 
and  of  the  cornea,  as  well  as  of  the  region  of  the  pupiL 


HYPNOTISM  AND  EESPONSIBILITY.  371 

These  may,  in  the  case  of  most  subjects,  be  touched  with 
a  foreign  body,  without  producing  any  reflex  action  of 
the  eyelid.  In  P ,  however,  when  a  visual  hallucina- 
tion has  been  developed,  the  sensibility  of  the  external 
membranes  of  the  eye  is  normal. 

All  these  signs  enable  the  expert  to  know  whether 
a  subject  can  or  cannot  receive  an  hallucination  by  sug- 
gestion, but  they  by  no  means  establish  the  fact  that 
the  hallucination  has  actually  occurred.  This  is  a  dis- 
tinct question,  which  it  is  the  part  of  the  legal  exami- 
nation to  elucidate. 

Systematic  anaesthesia  serves  as  a  counterpart  to 
hallucination,  and  must  be  considered  in  conjunction 
with  it.  It  may  be  suggested  to  a  subject  before  whom 
a  crime  or  offence  is  to  be  committed,  that  he  is  unable 
to  see  a  given  person.  The  possibility  of  making  such 
a  suggestion  would  enable  a  criminal  to  get  rid  of  a 
troublesome  witness,  and  the  subject  might  then  declare 
in  a  court  of  justice,  in  all  good  faith,  that  he  had  seen, 
heard,  and  felt  nothing. 

We  need  only  remind  our  readers  of  the  numerous 
proofs  of  systematic  ansesthesia.  The  first  of  these  is 
the  Chinese  gong.  A  subject  susceptible  to  hypnotism 
who  instantly  becomes  cataleptic  at  the  sound  of  the 
gong,  is  no  longer  aflfected  by  catalepsy  when  it  is 
sounded  after  his  perception  of  the  instrument  has  been 
destroyed  by  suggestion.  A  second  proof  is  derived 
from  the  complementary  colours.  When  it  has  been 
suggested  to  the  subject  that  he  cannot  see  the  colour 
red,  his  fixed  gaze  at  an  invisible  square  of  red  produces 
after  a  while  a  consecutive  green  image.  Finally,  the 
action  of  the  magnet  impresses  a  special  character  on 


372  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

systematic  anaesthesia.  The  expert  may  ascertain  from 
these  signs  whether  a  given  subject,  placed  in  a  state  of 
hj^notism,  is  capable  of  affording  authentic  instances  of 
ansesthesia. 

It  is  possible  to  suggest  to  a  subject  in  a  state  of 
somnambulism  fixed  ideas,  irresistible  impulses,  which 
he  will  obey  on  awaking  with  mathematical  precision. 
The  subject  may  be  induced  to  write  down  promises, 
recognitions  of  debt,  admissions  and  confessions,  by 
which  he  may  be  grievously  wronged.  If  arms  are 
given  to  him,  he  may  also  be  induced  to  commit  any 
crime  which  is  prompted  by  the  experimenter.  We  could 
cite  several  acts,  to  say  the  least  unseemly,  committed 
by  hysterical  patients,  which  were  crimes  in  miniature, 
performed  by  an  unconscious  subject,  and  instigated  by 
one  who  was  really  guilty,  and  who  remained  unknown. 
At  the  Salpetriere  a  paper-knife  has  often  been  placed 
in  the  hands  of  an  hypnotic  subject,  who  is  told  that  it 
is  a  dagger,  with  which  she  is  ordered  to  murder  one  of 
the  persons  present.  On  awaking,  the  patient  hovers 
round  her  victim,  and  suddenly  strikes  him  with  such 
violence  that  I  think  it  well  to  refrain  from  such  experi- 
ments. It  has  also  been  suggested  to  the  subject  to 
steal  various  objects,  such  as  photographs,  etc. 

These  facts  show  that  the  hypnotic  subject  may 
become  the  instrument  of  a  terrible  crime,  the  more 
terrible  since,  immediately  after  the  act  is  accomplished, 
all  may  be  forgotten — the  crime,  the  impulse,  and  its 
instigator. 

Some  of  the  more  dangerous  characteristics  of  these 
suggested  acts  should  be  noted.  These  impulses  may 
give  rise  to  crimes  or  offences  of  which  the  nature  is 


HYPNOTISM  AND  EESPONSIBILITY.  373 

infinitely  varied,  but  which  retain  the  almost  constant 
character  of  a  conscious,  irresistible  impulse ;  that  is, 
although  the  subject  is  quite  himself,  and  conscious  of 
his  identity,  he  cannot  resist  the  force  which  impels 
him  to  perform  an  act  which  he  would  under  other 
circumstances  condemn.  Hurried  on  by  this  irresistible 
force,  the  subject  feels  none  of  the  doubts  and  hesitations 
of  a  criminal  who  acts  spontaneously ;  he  behaves  with 
a  tranquillity  and  security  which  would  in  such  a  case 
ensure  the  success  of  his  crime.  Some  of  our  subjects 
are  aware  of  the  power  of  suggestion,  and  when  abso- 
lutely resolved  to  commit  an  act  for  which  they  fear 
that  their  courage  or  audacity  may  fail  when  the  moment 
arrives,  they  take  the  precaution  of  receiving  the  sug- 
gestion from  their  companions. 

The  danger  of  these  criminal  suggestions  is  increased 
by  the  fact  that  at  the  will  of  the  experimenter,  the  act 
may  be  accomplished  several  hours,  and  even  several 
days,  after  the  date  of  suggestion.  Facts  of  this  kind, 
which  were  first  reported  by  Richet,  are  not  exceptional, 
and  have  been  repeatedly  observed  by  us. 

The  reality  of  this  class  of  facts  cannot  now  be  dis- 
puted, but  the  difficulty  of  proof  in  any  given  case  is 
considerable.  We  have  not,  in  the  case  of  impulsive 
acts,  the  same  objective  criterion  as  we  have  in  halluci- 
nations and  in  the  paralysis  of  movements  and  of 
sensation.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  for  the  expert  to 
be  cautious  in  his  judgment. 

Loss   of  memory  is  one   chief  characteristic  of  the 

facts  of  suggestion.     The  hypnotic  subject  does  not  know 

from  whom,  when,  and  how  the  suggestion  was  received. 

This  amnesia  may  be  either  spontaneous  or  suggested, 

17 


S74  ANDIAL  MAGNETISM. 

and  it  is  a  phenomenon  of  the  waking  state,  which 
disappears  when  the  subject  is  hypnotized  anew.  The 
recollection  o£  all  which  occurred  during  hypnosis  is 
then  revived,  and  the  subject  is  able  to  indicate,  often 
with  remarkable  precision,  the  author  of  the  suggestion, 
the  place,  day,  and  hour  when  it  was  made  to  him, 
always  supposing  that  he  has  received  no  special  sug- 
gestion of  complete  oblivion.  Hence  tlie  question  occurs 
whether  an  accused  person  who  appeals  to  an  hypnotic 
suggestion  for  his  defence,  and  who  submits  to  experi- 
ment, can  be  profitably  examined  at  a  time  when  he 
displays  all  the  physical  characteristics  peculiar  to  the 
somnambulist  state,  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  im- 
posture. We  have  had  occasion  to  show  that  some 
subjects  are  in  this  state  capable  of  suppressing  the 
truth,  and  Pitres  has  shown  that  deceit  was  not  im- 
possible. An  hypnotic  subject  may  at  the  same  time  be 
criminal,  and  suggestion  must  be  accepted  only  so  far 
as  it  admits  of  material  proof,  or  at  any  rate  as  far  as  it 
can  be  necessarily  deduced  from  the  facts  of  the  case. 

Simulation  is  not  the  only  danger  to  be  avoided  in 
the  examination  of  a  somnambulist  subject.  It  is  possible 
that  a  magistrate  or  physician  may,  by  the  persistence 
of  his  questions  and  his  authoritative  voice,  unconsciously 
give  suggestions  which  modify  the  subject's  recollections, 
and  give  rise  to  hallucinations  of  memory.  There  is  a 
further  danger  that  the  examination  of  the  subject  may 
conflict  with  a  previous  suggestion,  by  which  he  had 
been  forbidden  to  speak  of  certain  events.  It  is  true 
that  a  little  dexterity  will  overcome  this  defence,  as, 
for  instance,  by  assuming,  by  means  of  suggestion,  the 
personality  of  the  first  experimenter.     But  the  facts  we 


HYPNOTISM  AND  RESPONSIBILITY.  375 

have  given  are  enough  to  show  that  the  examination  of 
an  hypnotic  subject  does  not  afford  a  sufficient  warrant 
of  her  sincerity. 

There  is  still  more  reason  for  condemning  an  inquiry 
by  means  of  hypnotism.  It  has  been  suggested  that  a 
suspected  or  accused  person  might  be  hypnotized  against 
his  will,  in  order  to  obtain  from  him  admissions  or  in- 
formation respecting  the  facts  of  the  accusation.  This 
process,  which  resembles  that  of  torture,  would  have  the 
same  danger  of  leading  a  suspected  person  to  confess 
crimes  of  which  he  was  not  really  guilty. 

We  should  say,  in  conclusion,  that  the  suggestion  of 
crime,  whether  made  in  or  out  of  the  hypnotic  state, 
upon  hypnotic  or  neuropathic  subjects,  can  only  be 
proved  by  the  physical  characteristics  furnished  by  the 
subject.  The  medical  expert,  whose  duty  it  is  to  bring 
justice  to  light,  and  not  to  find  victims  for  the  law,  must 
be  content  with  this  observation.  He  may  prove  by 
experiment  that  a  given  subject  is  or  is  not  susceptible 
to  hypnotism,  and  that  the  phenomena  in  question  may 
be  produced  during  hypnosis,  or  under  the  influence  of 
an  hypnotic  suggestion,  but  he  can  only  give  evidence 
of  the  possibility  of  the  fact.  It  is  for  others  to  decide 
whether  the  fact  really  occurred. 

When  once  the  suggestion  has  been  proved,  it  remains 
to  be  seen  what  is  the  penal  and  moral  responsibility  of 
the  individual  who  has  acted  under  the  influence  of  an 
hypnotic  suggestion.  We  think  that  some  authors  have 
been  too  hasty  in  deciding  that  the  moral  responsibility 
of  the  subject  has  absolutely  ceased.  We  should  at  any 
rate  inquire  why  he  consented  to  be  hypnotized,  unless 
this  was  done  suddenly,  or  by  force  or  guile.     Even  if 


376  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

he  was  not  aware  of  the  experimenter's  purpose  in 
hypnotizing  him,  he  must  be  held  responsible  for  having 
voluntarily  alienated  his  free  will  This  principle  may 
certainly  be  established,  and  it  is  still  more  applicable  if 
the  subject  was  aware  before  he  was  hypnotized  for  what 
criminal  act  it  was  proposed  to  employ  him.  This 
hypothesis  is  by  no  means  impossible. 

It  is  possible  that  a  subject  susceptible  to  hypnotism 
might  be  found  in  a  band  of  swindlers  or  murderers  who 
would  willingly  become  the  recipient  of  criminal  sugges- 
tions. We  can  readily  understand  the  use  of  suggestion 
in  such  circumstances,  since  those  who  act  under  the 
influence  of  hypnotic  suggestion  display  more  daring  and 
courage,  and  even  more  intelligence,  than  when  they  act 
from  their  own  impulse. 

Even  when  the  subject  has  been  hypnotized  without 
his  consent,  when  he  has  been  taken  by  surprise,  and  has 
received  the  suggestion  during  his  waking  state,  and  has 
consequently  incurred  no  moral  responsibility,  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  society  is  justified  in  defending  itself 
against  such  a  dangerous  subject.  So  far,  hypnotism  has 
only  made  a  casual  appearance  in  a  court  of  justice.  But 
this  state  of  things  might  change  at  any  time,  and  sug- 
gestion may  become  an  instrument  of  criminal  practices. 
No  one  who  studies  the  history  of  crime  will  maintain 
that  society  ought  not  to  guard  against  such  a  danger. 
Hypnotic  criminals  ought  to  be  treated  like  insane 
criminals.* 

Since  the  possibility  of  curing  a  certain  number  of 
nervous  diseases  by  means  of  hypnotism  is  established, 

*  We  are  glad  to  see  that  Tarde  sliares  this  opinion.   See  Alcan,  La 
criminality  convpar^e,  p.  142. 


HYPNOTISM  AND  EESPONSIBILITY.  377 

it  cannot  be  disputed  that  physicians  are  justified  in 
making  use  of  it,  under  the  same  reservation  as  any- 
other  methods  of  therapeutics.  The  physician's  responsi- 
bility is  diminished  if  he  has  to  treat  an  affection  which 
would  not  yield  to  other  measures ;  if  he  has  obtained  the 
consent  of  his  patient  and  the  concurrence  of  the  patient's 
friends,  and,  finally ;  if  he  can  show  that  he  has  acted 
prudently,  with  due  consideration  of  the  danger  incurred 
by  the  patient,  and  with  proper  precautions  against  these 
risks. 

Some  reservations  must  be  made  with  respect  to 
experiment,  strictly  so  called. 

Some  facts  recently  observed  in  Italy  seem  to  indicate 
that  the  practice  of  hypnotism  may  produce  in  the 
subject  permanent  nervous  affections.  Yet  to  assert  that 
experiments  must,  therefore,  be  prohibited  would  imply 
that  there  are  truths  which  it  is  better  not  to  know.  It 
is,  however,  certain  that  the  prejudice  should  be  over- 
come by  those  who  have  excited  it,  and  that  men  are  not 
freed  from  all  responsibility  by  the  fact  that  they  possess 
a  diploma.  If,  instead  of  considering  the  interest  of  the 
patient,  the  result  of  the  experiment  is  the  only  object 
in  view,  it  may  come  to  pass  that,  on  pretence  of  shedding 
light  on  the  highest  problems  of  physiology  or  psychology, 
inquirers  who  are  not  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
anatomy,  physiology,  and  therapeutics,  may  imperil  the 
lives  of  subjects  committed  to  their  care.  Ignorance  of 
the  danger  is  no  valid  excuse  for  the  imprudence  of  the 
experimenter. 

It  is  only  on  these  conditions  that  experiments  on 
the  human  subject  should  be  performed,  and  it  may  be 
said  in  passing  that  there  is  nothing  in  them  which  need 


378  ANIMAL  MAGNETISM. 

appear  shocking.  It  is  indeed  an  every-day  practice, 
since  in  laboratories  and  hospitals,  patients  or  students 
are  always  willing  to  submit  to  the  action  of  drugs  or  to 
physiological  experiments,  and  experiments  in  hypnotism 
may  be  performed  without  inconvenience  under  the 
same  conditions  and  safeguards. 

With  respect  to  the  performance  of  such  experiments 
in  public,  it  should  be  condemned,  just  as  we  condemn 
public  dissections  of  the  dead  body,  and  vivisection  in 
public.  It  is  certain  that  there  are  still  graver  objections 
to  hypnotic  exhibitions,  since  they  are  liable  to  produce 
nervous  affections,  even  in  those  who  do  not  propose 
to  be  the  subjects  of  experiment. 


THE   END. 


D.  APPLETON  &  00/S  PUBLIOATIONS. 

MAN  BEFORE  METALS.  By  N.  Joly,  Professor  at  the  Science 
Faculty  of  Toulouse ;  Correspondent  of  the  Institute.  With  148  11" 
lustrations.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.'75. 

"  The  discussion  of  man's  origin  and  early  history,  by  Professor  De  Quatre- 
fages,  formed  one  of  the  most  useful  volumes  in  the  *  International  Scientific 
Series,'  and  the  same  collection  is  now  further  enriched  by  a  popular  treatise  on 
paleontology,  by  M.  N.  Joly,  Professor  in  the  University  of  Toulouse.  The  title 
of  the  book,  *  Man  before  Metals,'  indicates  the  limitations  of  the  writer's  theme. 
His  object  is  to  bring  together  the  numerous  proofs,  collected  by  modern  research, 
of  the  great  age  of  the  human  race,  and  to  show  us  what  man  was,  in  respect  of 
customs,  industries,  and  moral  or  religious  ideas,  before  the  use  of  metals  was 
known  to  him." — New  York  Sun. 

"An  interesting,  not  to  say 'fascinating  volume." — New  York  Churchman. 

ANIMAL  INTELLIGENCE.  By  George  J.  Romanes,  F.  R.  S., 
Zoological  Secretai'y  of  the  Linncean  Society,  etc.   12mo.  Cloth,  $1.75. 

"  My  object  in  the  work  as  a  whole  is  twofold  :  First,  I  have  thought  it  de- 
sirable that  there  should  be  something  resembling  a  text-book  of  the  facts  of  Com- 
parative Psychology,  to  which  men  of  science,  and  also  metaphyaicians,  may  turn 
whenever  they  have  occasion  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  particular  level  of 
intelligence  to  which  this  or  that  species  of  animal  attains.  My  second  and  much 
more  important  object  is  that  of  considering  the  facts  of  animal  intelligence  in 
their  relation  to  the  theory  of  descent." — From  the  Preface. 

"Unless  we  are  greatly  mistaken,  Mr.  Romanes's  work  will  take  its  place  as 
one  of  the  most  attractive  volumes  of  the  "  International  Scientific  Series.'  Some 
persons  may,  indeed,  be  disposed  to  say  that  it  is  too  attractive,  that  it  feeds  the 
pi)pular  taste  for  the  curious  and  marvelous  without  supplying  any  commensurate 
discipline  in  exact  scientific  reflection ;  but  the  author  has,  we  think,  fully  justi- 
fied himself  in  his  modest  preface.  The  result  is  the  appearance  of  a  collection 
of  facts  which  will  be  a  real  boon  to  the  student  of  Comparative  Psychology,  for 
this  is  the  first  attempt  to  present  systematically  well-assured  observations  on  the 
mental  life  of  &n\.mvi\s.''''— Saturday  Review. 

"  The  author  believes  himself,  not  without  ample  cause,  to  have  completely 
bridged  the  supposed  gap  between  instinct  and  reason  by  the  authentic  proofs 
here  marshaled  of  remarkable  intelligence  in  some  of  the  higher  animals.  It  is 
the  seeminqly  conclusive  evidence  of  reasoning  powers  furnished  by  the  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  ends  in  cases  which  can  not  be  explained  on  the  theory  of  in- 
herited aptitude  or  habit."— iVei^  York  Sun. 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  POLITICS.     By  Sheldon  Amos,  M.  A.,  anthor 

of  "The  Science  of  Law,"  etc.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.75 

"  To  the  political  student  and  the  practical  statesman  it  ought  to  bo  of  great 
value."— iV^tc  York  Herald. 

"  The  author  traces  the  subject  from  Plato  and  Aristotle  in  Greece,  and  Cicero 
in  Rome,  to  the  modern  schools  in  the  English  field,  not  slighting  the  teachings 
of  the  American  Revolution  or  the  lessons  of  the  French  Revolution  of  1793. 
Formn  of  government,  political  terms,  the  relation  of  law,  written  and  unwritten, 
to  the  subject,  a  codification  from  Justinian  to  Napoleon  in  France  and  Field  in 
America,  are  treated  as  parts  of  the  subject  in  hand.  Necessarily  the  subjects  of 
executive  and  legislative  authority,  police,  liquor,  and  land  laws  are  considered^ 
and  the  question  ever  growing  in  importance  in  all  countries,  the  relations  of  cor- 
porations to  the  state."— iVett;  York  Observer. 


New  York:  D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3.  &  6  Bond  Street 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO/S  PUBLICATIONS. 

SUICIDE :    An  Essay  in  Comparative  Moral  Statistics.     By  Henr? 
MoRSKLLi,  Professor  of  Psychological  Medicine  in  the  Royal  Univer- 
sity, Turin.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.V5. 
"  Suicide  "  is  a  scientific  inquiry,  on  the  basis  of  the  statistical  method,  into  the  laws 
of  suicidal  phenomena.    Dealing  with  the  subject  as  a  branch  of  social  sciencj,  it  con- 
eiders  the  increase  of  suicide  iu  diflferent  countries,  and  the  comparison  of  nations 
races,  and  periods  in  its  manifestation.     The  influences  of  aijce,  sex.  constitution,  cli-' 
mate,  season,  occupation,  religion,  prevailing  ideas,  the  elements  of  character,  and  the 
tendencies  of  civilization,  are  comprehensively  analyzed  in  their  bearing  upon  the  pro- 
pensity to  self-destruction.    Professor  Morselli  is  an  eminent  European  authority  on 
this  subject.    It  is  accompanied  by  colored  maps  illustrating  pictoriaily  the  results  of 
statistical  inquiries. 

VOLCANOES:   What  they  Are  and  what  they  Teach.     By 

J.  W.  JuDD,  Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Royal  School  of  Mine's 
(London).  With  Ninety-six  Illustrations.  12mo.  Cloth,  $2,00. 
"In  no  field  has  modern  research  been  more  fruitful  than  in  that  of  which  Professor 
Judd  gives  a  popular  account  in  the  present  volume.  The  great  lines  of  dynamical, 
geological,  and  meteorological  inquiry  converge  upon  the  grand  problem  of  the  interior 
constitution  of  the  earth,  and  the  vast  influence  of  subterranean  agencies.  .  .  .  His 
boolc  is  very  far  from  being  a  mere  dry  description  of  volcanoes  and  their  eruptions;  it 
is  rather  a  presentation  «f  the  terrestrial  facts  and  laws  with  which  volcanic  phenomena 
are  associated."— P(9/>Mtor  Science  Monthly. 

THE  SUN.  By  C.  A.  Young,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Astronomy 
in  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  With  numerous  Illustrations. 
Third  edition,  revised,  with  Supplementary  Note.     12mo.     Cloth, 

$2.00. 

The  "  Supplementary  Note"  gives  important  developments  in  solar  astronomy 
since  the  publication  of  the  second  edition  in  1882. 

"  It  would  take  a  cyclopaedia  to  represent  all  that  has  been  done  toward  clearing  up 
the  solar  mysteries.  Professor  Young  has  summarized  the  information,  and  presented 
it  in  a  form  completely  available  for  general  readers.  There  is  no  rhetoric  in  his 
book;  he  trusts  the  grandeur  of  his  theme  to  kindle  interest  and  impress  the  feelings. 
His  statements  are  plain,  direct,  clear,  and  condensed,  though  ample  enough  for  his 
purpose,  and  the  substance  of  what  is  generally  wanted  will  be  found  accurately  given 
in  his  pages.  '—Po^/ar  Science  Monthly. 

ILLUSIONS :  A  Psychological  Study.     By  James  Sully,  author 
of  "  Sensation  and  Intuition,"  etc.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

This  volume  takes  a  wide  survey  of  the  field  of  error  embracing  in  its  view  not  only 
the  illusions  commonly  regarded  as  of  the  nature  of  mental  aberrations  or  hallucina- 
tions, but  also  other  illusions  arising  from  that  capacity  for  error  which  belongs  essen- 
tially to  rational  human  nature.  The  author  has  endeavored  to  keep  to  a  strictly 
scientific  treatment— that  is  to  say,  the  description  and  classification  of  acknowledged 
errors,  and  the  exposition  of  them  by  a  reference  to  their  psychical  and  physical  con- 
ditions, 

"  This  is  not  a  technical  work,  but  one  of  wide  popular  interest,  in  the  principles 
and  results  of  which  every  one  is  concerned.  The  illusions  of  perception  of  the  senses 
and  of  dreams  are  first  considered,  and  then  the  author  passes  lo  the  illusions  of  in- 
trospection, errors  of  insight,  illusions  of  memory,  and  illusions  of  belief.  The  work 
is  a  noteworthy  contribution  to  the  original  pi-oirress  of  thought,  and  may  be  relied 
upon  as  representing  the  present  state  of  knowledge  on  the  important  subject  tc 
which  it  is  devoted."— Popw to/"  Science  Monthly. 


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GENERAL  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  MUSCLES  AND  NERVES. 

By  Dr.  I.  Kosenthal,  Professor  of  Physiology  at  the  University  of 

Erlangen.     With  seventy-five  Woodcuts.     ("International  Scientific 

Series.")     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

"  The  attempt  at  a  connected  accoimt  of  the  general  physiology  of  ranscles  and 

nerves  is,  aa  far  as  I  know,  the  first  of  its  kind.    The  general  data  for  this  hranch 

of  science  have  been  gained  only  within  the  past  thirty  years.'' — Extract  from 

Pr^ace. 

SIGHT  :  An  Exposition  of  the  Principles  of  Monocular  and  Binocular 
Vision.  By  Joseph  Le  Conte,  LL.  D.,  author  of  "Elements  of  Ge- 
ology"; "Religion  and  Science";  and  Professor  of  Geology  and 
Natural  History  in  the  University  of  California.  With  numerous 
Illustrations.  12mo.  Cloth,  $1.60. 
"  It  is  pleasant  to  find  an  American  book  which  can  rank  with  the  very  best 

of  foreign  works  on  this  subject.    Professor  Le  Conte  has  long  been  known  as 

an  original  investigator  in  this  department ;  all  that  he  gives  us  is  treated  with 

a  master-hand."— 27ie  Nation, 

ANIMAL  LIFE,  as  affected  by  the  Natural  Conditions  of  Existence. 
By  Karl  Semper,  Professor  of  the  University  of  Wiirzburg.     With 
2  Maps  and  106  Woodcuts,  and  Index.     12 mo.    Cloth,  $2.00. 
"This  is  in  many  respects  one  of  the  most  interesting  contributions  to 

zoological  literature  which  has  appeared  for  some  time."— iVa^wr^. 

THE  ATOMIC  THEORY.  By  Ad.  Wurtz,  Membre  de  I'Institut ; 
Doyen  Ilonoraire  de  la  Faculte  de  M^decine ;  Professeur  k  la  Faculty 
des  Sciences  de  Paris.  Translated  by  E.  Cleminshaw,  M.  A.,  F.  C. 
S.,  F,  I.  C,  Assistant  Master  at  Sherborne  School.  12rao.  Cloth, 
$1.50. 

"There  was  need  for  a  book  like  this,  which  discusses  the  atomic  theory  both 
in  its  historic  evolution  and  in  its  present  form.  And  perhaps  no  man  of  this 
age  could  have  been  selected  so  able  to  perform  the  task  in  a  masterly  way  as 
the  illustrious  French  chemist,  Adolph  Wnrtz.  It  is  impossible  to  convey  to  the 
reader,  in  a  notice  like  this,  any  adequate  idea  of  the  scope,  lucid  instructiveness, 
and  scientific  interest  of  Professor  Wurtz's  book.  The  modern  problems  of 
chemistry,  which  are  commonly  so  obscure  from  imperfect  exposition,  are  here 
made  wonderfully  clear  and  attractive." — The  Popular  Science  Monthly. 

THE  CRAYFISH.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Zoology.  By 
Professor  T.  H.  Huxley,  F.R.S.  With  82  Illustrations.  12mo. 
Cloth,  $1.'75. 

"Whoever  will  follow  these  pages,  crayfish  in  hand,  and  will  try  to  verify  for 
himself  the  statements  which  they  contain,  wiU  find  himself  broutrht  face  to  face 
with  all  the  great  zoological  questions  which  excite  so  lively  an  interest  at  the 
present  day." 

"  The  reader  of  this  valuable  monograph  will  lay  it  down  with  a  feeling  of 
wonder  at  the  amount  and  variety  of  matter  which  has  been  got  out  of  so  seem- 
ingly slight  and  unpretending  a  e,v{b}QCi.'"— Saturday  Review. 


New  York:   D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  6  Bond  Street. 


D,  APPLETON  &  CO/S  PUBUOATIONS. 

THE  HUMAN  SPECIES.     By  A.  De  Quatrefages,  Professor  of 
Anthropology   ia  the  Museum  of  Natural   History,  Paris.      12mo. 
Cloth,  $2.00. 
The  work  treats  of  the  unity,  origin,  antiquity,  and  original  localization  of  the 
human  species,  peopling  of  the  globe,  acclimatization,  primitive  man,  formation  of  tho 
human  races,  fossil  human  races,  present  human  races,  and  the  physical  and  psycho- 
logical characters  of  mankind. 

STUDENT'S    TEXT-BOOK    OF    COLOR;    or,    MODERN 
CHROMATICS,     With  Applications  to  Art  and  Industry.     With 
130  Original  Illustrations,  and  Frontispiece  in  Colors.     By  Ogden 
N.  Rood,  Professor  of  Physics  in  Columbia  College.     12mo.     Cloth. 
$2.00. 
"  In  this  interesting  book  Professor  Eood,  who  as  a  distinguished  Professor  of 
Physics  in  Columbia  College,  United  States,  must  be  accepted  as  a  competent  authority 
on  the  branch  of  science  of  which  he  treats,  deals  brietly  and  succinctly  with  Mhat 
may  be  termed  the  scientific  raiio?iale  of  his  subject.    But  the  chief  value  of  his  work 
is  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  lie  is  himself  an  accomplished  artist  as  well  as  an  au- 
thoritative expounder  of  science."— A't/«/i6wrg'/i  Beview,  October^  1879,  in  an  article 
on  "■  The  Philosophy  of  Color.'' 

EDUCATION    AS   A   SCIENCE.     By  Alexander  Bain,  LL.  D. 

12mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 

"This  work  must  be  pronounced  the  most  remarkable  discussion  of  educational 
problems  which  has  been  published  in  our  day.  We  do  not  hesitate  to  bespeak  for  it 
the  widest  circulation  and  the  most  earnest  attention.  It  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
every  school-teacher  and  friend  of  education  throughout  the  land." — New  York  Sun. 

A    HISTORY    OF    THE    GROWTH    OF    THE    STEAM- 
ENGINE.      By  Robert  H.  Thurston,  A.  M.,  C.  E.,  Professor  of 
Mechanical   Engineering  in  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology, 
Hoboken,  N.  J.,  etc.     With  163  Illustrations,  including  15  Portraits. 
12mo.     Cloth,  $2.50. 
"  Professor  Thurston  almost  exhausts  his  subject ;  details  of  mechanism  are  followed 
by  interesting  biographies  of  the  more  important  inventors.    If,  as  is  contended,  the 
steam-engine  is  the  most  important  physical  agent  in  civilizing  the  world,  its  history 
is  a  desideratum,  and  the  i-eaders  of  the  present  work  will  agree  that  it  could  have  a 
no  more  amusing  and  intelligent  historian  than  our  author." — Boston  Gazette. 

STUDIES  IN  SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS.     By  J.  Norman  Lock- 

yer,  F.  R.  S.,  Correspondent  of  the  Institute  of  France,  etc.     With 

60  Illustrations.     12mo.     Cloth,  $2.50. 

"The  study  of  spectrum  analysis  is  one  fraught  with  a  peculiar  fascination,  and 
some  of  the  author's  experiments  are  exceedingly  picturesque  in  their  results.  They 
are  so  lucidly  described,  too,  that  the  reader  keeps  on,  from  page  to  page,  never 
flagging  in  interest  in  the  matter  before  him,  nor  putting  down  the  book  until  the  last 
page  is  reached."— xV^m;  York  Evening  Exin-ess. 


New  York :   D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO/S  PUBLICATIONS. 


GEORGE   J.    ROMANES'S   WORKS. 

JELLY-FISH,  STAR-FISH,  AND  SEA-URCHINS.     Being 
a  Research  on  Primitive  Nervous  Systems.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 

"  Although  I  have  throu<?hout  kept  in  view  the  requirements  of  a  jjeneral 
reader,  I  have  also  sought  to  render  the  book  of  service  to  the  working  physi- 
ologist, by  bringing  together  in  one  consecutive  account  all  the  more  important 
observations  and  results  which  have  been  yielded  by  this  research."— iilxirac^ 
from  Preface. 

"A  profound  research  into  the  laws  of  primitive  nervous  syeteme  conducted 
hy  one  of  the  ablest  ttnglish  investigators.  Mr.  Komanes  set  up  a  tent  on  the 
beach  and  examined  his  beautiful  pets  lor  six  summers  in  succession.  Such 
patient  and  loving  work  has  borne  its  fruits  in  a  monograph  which  leaves 
nothing  to  be  said  about  jelly-fish,  star-fish,  and  sea-urchins.  Every  one  who 
has  studied  the  lowest  forms  of  life  on  the  sea-shore  admires  these  objects.  But 
few  have  any  idea  of  the  exquisite  delicacy  of  their  structure  and  their  nice 
adaptation  to  tlieir  place  in  nature.  Mr.  Komanes  brings  out  the  subtile  beauties 
of  the  rudimentary  organisms,  and  shows  the  resemblances  they  bear  to  the 
higher  types  of  creation.  His  explanations  are  made  more  clear  by  a  large 
imniber  of  illustrations.  While  the  hook  is  well  adapred  for  popular  reading  it 
is  of  special  value  to  working  physiologists."— iVeaw  York  Journal  of  Commerce. 

"A  most  admirable  treatise  on  primitive  nervous  systems.  The  subject-matter 
is  full  of  original  investigations  and  experiments  upon  the  animals  mentioned  as 
types  of  the  lowest  nervous  developments."— ^o«<on  Commercial  Bulletin. 

"  Mr.  George  J.  Romanes  has  already  established  a  reputation  as  an  exact  and 
comprehensive  naturalist,  which  his  later  work,  '  Jelly-li'ish,  Star-Fish,  and  Sea- 
Urchius,'  fully  confirms.  These  marine  animals  are  well  known  upon  our  coasts, 
and  always  interest  the  on-lookers.  In  this  volume  (one  of  the  'International 
Scientific  Series  ')  we  have  the  whole  story  of  their  formation,  existence,  nervous 
system,  etc.,  made  most  interesting  by  the  simple  and  non-professional  manner 
of  treating  the  subject.  Illustrations  aid  the  text,  and  the  professional  student, 
the  naturalist,  all  h)ver8  of  the  rocks,  woods,  and  shore,  as  well  as  the  general 
reader,  will  find  instruction  as  well  as  delight  in  the  narrative."— i?o«to;i  Co^n- 
monwealth. 

ANIMAL   INTELLIGENCE.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 

"A  collection  of  facts  which,  though  it  may  merely  amuse  the  unscientific 
reader,  will  be  a  real  boon  to  the  student  of  comparative  psychology,  for  this  is 
the  first  attempt  to  present  systematically  the  well-assured  results  of  observation 
on  the  mental  life  ot  a.mva.a\&.''\— Saturday  Eeview. 

MENTAL   EVOLUTION   IN   ANIMALS.     With  a  Posthumous 
Essay  on  Instinct,  by  Charles  Darwin.     12mo.     Cloth,  $2.00. 

"Mr.  Romanes  has  followed  up  his  careful  enumeration  of  the  facts  of '  Ani- 
mal Intelligence,'  contributed  to  the  '  International  Scientific  Series,'  with  a 
work  dealing  with  the  successive  stages  at  which  the  various  mental  phenomena 
appear  in  the  scale  of  life.  The  present  installment  displays  the  same  evidence 
of  industry  in  collecting  facts  and  caution  in  co-ordinating  them  by  theory  as  the 
former."— 27i6  Athenceum. 


New  York :   D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


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ALEXANDER    BAIN'S    WORKS. 

THE    SENSES    AND    THE    INTELLECT.      By  Alexander 

Bain,  LL.  D.,  Professor  of  Logic  in  the  Univei'sity  of  Aberdeen. 

8vo.     Cloth,  $5.00. 

The  object  of  this  treatise  is  to  give  a  full  and  pystematic  account  of  two 

principal  divisions  of  the  science  of  mind— the  senses  and  tiie  intellect.    The 

value  of  the  third  edition  of  the  work  is  greatly  enhanced  by  an  account  of  the 

psychology  of  Aristotle,  which  has  been  contributed  by  Mr.  Grote. 

THE  EMOTIONS  AND  THE  WILL,  By  Alexander  Bain, 
LL.  D.     8vo.     Cloth,  $5.00. 

The  present  publication  is  a  sequel  to  the  former  one  on  "  The  Senses  and  the 
Intellect,"  and  completes  a  systematic  exposition  of  the  human  mind. 

MENTAL  SCIENCE.  A  Compendium  of  Psychology  and  the  His- 
tory of  Philosophy.  Designed  as  a  Text-book  for  High-Schools  and 
Colleges.  By  Ajlexander  Bain,  LL.  D.  12mo.  Cloth,  leather 
back,  $1.50. 

The  present  volume  is  an  abstract  of  two  voluminous  works,  "The  Senses 
and  the  Intellect "  and  "  The  Emotions  and  the  Will,"  and  presents  in  a  com- 
pressed and  lucid  form  the  views  which  are  there  more  extensively  elaborated. 

MORAL  SCIENCE.  A  Compendium  of  Ethics.  By  Alexander 
Bain,  LL.  D.     12mo.     Cloth,  leather  back,  $1.50. 

The  present  dissertation  falls  under  two  divisions.  The  first  division,  en- 
titled  The  Theory  of  Ethics,  gives  an  account  of  the  questions  or  points  brought 
into  discussion,  and  handles  at  length  the  two  of  greatest  prominence,  the  Ethical 
Standard  and  the  Moral  Faculty.  The  second  division— on  the  Ethical  SystemB 
—is  a  full  detail  of  all  the  systems,  ancient  and  modern. 

MIND  AND  BODY.  Theories  of  their  Relations.  By  Alexander 
Bain,  LL.  D.     12mo.     Cloth,  $1.50. 

"A  forcible  statement  of  the  connection  between  mind  and  body,  studying 
their  subtile  interworkings  by  the  light  of  the  most  recent  physiological  investi- 
gations.' ' —  Christian  Begister. 

LOGIC,  DEDUCTIVE  AND  INDUCTIVE.  By  Alexander 
Bain,  LL.  D.     Revised  edition.     12mo.     Cloth,  leather  back,  $2.00. 

EDUCATION  AS  A  SCIENCE.  By  Alexander  Bain,  LL.  D. 
12mo.     Cloth,  $1.75. 

ENGLISH  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC.  Enlarged 
edition.  Part  I.  Intellectual  Elements  of  Style.  By  Alexander 
Bain,  LL.  D.,  Emeritus  Professor  of  Logic  in  the  University  of 
Aberdeen.     12mo.     Cloth,  leather  back,  $1.50. 

ON  TEACHING  ENGLISH.  With  Detailed  Examples  and  an 
Inquiry  into  the  Definition  of  Poetry.  By  Alexander  Bain,  LL.  D. 
12mo.     Cloth,  $1.25. 

PRACTICAL  ESSAYS.  By  Alexander  Bain,  LL.  D.  12mo. 
Cloth,  $1.50. 

New  York:   D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  1,  3,  &  5  Bond  Street. 


^f 


C  .^ 


